APPLIEDMETERS electrical components Germany APPLIEDMETERS model APPLIEDMETERS price

APPLIEDMETERS electrical components are electronic devices made from semiconductor materials (silicon, selenium, germanium, etc.). A diode has two electrodes: the positive electrode, also called the anode; and the negative electrode, also called the cathode. When a forward voltage is applied across the two poles of the diode, the diode conducts; when a reverse voltage is applied, the diode cuts off. The conduction and cutoff of the diode are equivalent to the closing and opening of a switch. The diode has unidirectional conductivity; when conducting, the current flows from the anode through the tube to the cathode. The diode is one of the earliest semiconductor devices, and its application is very extensive. Especially in various electronic circuits, by reasonably connecting diodes with resistors, capacitors, inductors and other components to form circuits with different functions, it is possible to achieve functions such as rectification of AC, demodulation of modulated signals, limiting and clamping, and voltage stabilization of power supply voltage.

APPLIEDMETERS electrical component structure

A solid-state relay consists of three parts: the input circuit, isolation, and output circuit. According to different categories of input voltage, the input circuit can be divided into DC input circuit, AC input circuit, and AC/DC input circuit. Some input control circuits also have features compatible with TTL/CMOS, positive/negative logic control, and inversion, allowing convenient connection with TTL and MOS logic circuits. For control signals with fixed control voltage, a resistive input circuit is used. The isolation and coupling methods between the input and output circuits of solid-state relays include optocoupling and transformer coupling: optocoupling typically uses photodiode-phototransistor, photodiode-triac optocoupler, or photovoltaic cells to achieve isolated control between the control side and the load side; high-frequency transformer coupling utilizes the self-excited high-frequency signal generated by the input control signal, which is coupled to the secondary, then detected, rectified, and processed by logic circuits to form a drive signal. The power switch of the solid-state relay is directly connected to the power supply and load terminals to achieve switching of the load power. Mainly used components include high-power bipolar transistors, SCRs, triacs, power MOSFETs, and IGBTs. The output circuit of solid-state relays can also be divided into DC output, AC output, and AC/DC output forms. According to the load type, they can be divided into DC solid-state relays and AC solid-state relays. For DC output, bipolar devices or power MOSFETs can be used; for AC output, two SCRs or one triac are usually used. AC solid-state relays can be further divided into single-phase AC solid-state relays and three-phase AC solid-state relays. AC solid-state relays can be classified into random-turn-on AC solid-state relays and zero-crossing AC solid-state relays based on the timing of turn-on and turn-off.

APPLIEDMETERS electrical component types

(1) Vacuum tubes can be classified by application into voltage amplifier tubes, power amplifier tubes, gas-filled tubes, thyratrons, ignitrons, frequency converter tubes, rectifier tubes, detector tubes, tuning indicator tubes (magic eye), and voltage regulator tubes. (2) Vacuum tubes can be classified by the number of electrodes into voltage amplifier tubes, triodes, tetrodes, pentodes, hexodes, heptodes, octodes, nonodes, and composite tubes. Tubes with more than three electrodes are also called multi-electrode or multi-grid tubes. (3) Vacuum tubes can be classified by shape and envelope material into bottle-shaped glass tubes (ST tubes), "acorn" tubes, cylindrical glass tubes (GT tubes), large glass tubes (G type tubes), metal-ceramic tubes, miniature tubes (also called peanut or finger tubes, MT tubes), lighthouse tubes, and subminiature tubes (pencil tubes). (4) Vacuum tubes can be classified by internal structure into single diodes, diodes, double-diode triodes, double diodes, single triodes, power pentodes, beam tetrodes, beam pentodes, dual diodes, diode-pentode composite tubes, beam tetrodes, triode-pentode composite tubes, triode-hexode composite tubes, triode-heptode composite tubes, and various types of beam power tubes. (5) Vacuum tubes can be classified by cathode heating method into directly heated cathode vacuum tubes (current passes directly through the cathode to achieve thermionic emission) and indirectly heated cathode vacuum tubes (the cathode is heated by a filament adjacent to it). (6) Vacuum tubes can be classified by shielding method into sharp-cutoff shielded vacuum tubes and remote-cutoff shielded vacuum tubes. (7) Vacuum tubes can be classified by cooling method into water-cooled vacuum tubes, air-cooled vacuum tubes, and natural convection-cooled vacuum tubes.

APPLIEDMETERS electrical component principle

Its operating principle is the same as that of a transformer, and its basic structure consists of an iron core and primary and secondary windings. It is characterized by a very small and relatively constant capacity, operating close to no-load conditions during normal operation. The impedance of the voltage transformer itself is very low; once a short circuit occurs on the secondary side, the current will increase sharply and burn out the coil. Therefore, fuses are connected to the primary side of the voltage transformer, and the secondary side is reliably grounded to prevent high potential to ground on the secondary side in case of insulation failure between the primary and secondary sides, which could cause personal injury and equipment damage. Voltage transformers for measurement are generally made with a single-phase two-winding structure. The primary voltage is the voltage to be measured (such as the line voltage of the power system). They can be used in single phase, or two units can be connected in V-V configuration for three-phase use. Voltage transformers for laboratory use often have multiple taps on the primary side to accommodate the need to measure different voltages. Voltage transformers for protective grounding also have a third winding, known as a three-winding voltage transformer. The third windings of the three phases are connected in an open-delta configuration. The two output terminals of the open delta are connected to the voltage coil of the ground protection relay. During normal operation, the three-phase voltages of the power system are symmetrical, and the sum of the three-phase induced electromotive forces on the third winding is zero. Once a single-phase ground fault occurs, the neutral point shifts, and zero-sequence voltage appears between the terminals of the open delta, causing the relay to operate and thus protecting the power system. If zero-sequence voltage appears in the winding, zero-sequence flux will appear in the corresponding iron core. Therefore, this type of three-phase voltage transformer uses a five-limb core or three single-phase voltage transformers. For this type of transformer, the accuracy requirement for the third winding is not high, but it requires certain over-excitation characteristics (i.e., when the primary voltage increases, the magnetic flux density in the iron core increases by a corresponding factor without damage). Voltage transformers are indispensable electrical appliances in power transmission and supply systems such as power plants and substations. Precision voltage transformers are instruments used in electrical testing laboratories to extend measurement ranges and measure voltage, power, and electrical energy. Voltage transformers are very similar to transformers; both are used to transform voltage on lines. Why is voltage transformation needed on lines? This is because, depending on the different conditions of power generation, transmission, and consumption, the voltage on lines varies greatly, with significant differences. Some are low voltage 220V and 386V, while others are high voltage, ranging from tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of volts. To directly measure these low and high voltages, corresponding low-voltage and high-voltage voltmeters and other instruments and relays would need to be manufactured according to the magnitude of the line voltage. This would not only create great difficulties in instrument manufacturing, but more importantly, it is impossible and absolutely prohibited to directly manufacture high-voltage instruments and measure voltage directly on high-voltage lines.

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