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auer electrical components are pyroelectric infrared sensors, devices constructed from thermocouples. They are widely used as temperature detection devices in fields such as ear thermometers, radiation thermometers, electric ovens, and food temperature testing. The entry details the basic unit of a thermopile—the thermocouple; and provides a detailed introduction to the structure, working principle, main parameters, and applications of thermopiles.

auer electrical component principle

The construction of a mercury switch is very simple. The exterior is a sealed cylindrical insulating housing containing approximately one-fifth mercury. At one end of the housing, two wires leading out from the interior are fixed. This constitutes a mercury switch. Due to gravity, the mercury droplet flows to the lower part of the container; if it simultaneously contacts both electrodes, the switch closes the circuit, turning the switch on. The shape of the container also affects the conditions under which the mercury droplet contacts the electrodes.

auer electrical component principle

When two different conductors or semiconductors A and B form a loop with their ends connected, as long as the temperatures at the two junctions differ, with one junction at temperature T, called the working end or hot end, and the other at temperature T0, called the free end or cold end, an electromotive force (EMF) is generated in the loop. The direction and magnitude of this EMF depend on the conductor materials and the temperatures of the two junctions. This phenomenon is called the "thermoelectric effect," the loop formed by the two conductors is called a "thermocouple," these two conductors are called "thermoelectrodes," and the generated EMF is called "thermoelectromotive force." Thermoelectromotive force consists of two parts: the contact EMF between the two conductors and the temperature difference EMF of a single conductor. The magnitude of the thermoelectromotive force in a thermocouple loop depends only on the conductor materials forming the thermocouple and the temperatures of the two junctions, and is independent of the shape and dimensions of the thermocouple. Once the electrode materials of the thermocouple are fixed, the thermoelectromotive force is a function of the difference between the junction temperatures t and t0. This relationship is widely applied in practical temperature measurement. Since the cold end t0 is constant, the thermoelectromotive force generated by the thermocouple changes only with the temperature of the hot end (measurement end), meaning a specific thermoelectromotive force corresponds to a specific temperature. Temperature measurement can thus be achieved by measuring the thermoelectromotive force. The basic principle of thermocouple temperature measurement is that two dissimilar material conductors form a closed loop; when a temperature gradient exists between the ends, current flows through the loop, creating an EMF—thermoelectromotive force—between the ends, known as the Seebeck effect. Two homogeneous conductors of different compositions serve as thermoelectrodes, the higher-temperature end is the working end, and the lower-temperature end is the free end, which is usually maintained at a constant temperature. Based on the functional relationship between thermoelectromotive force and temperature, thermocouple reference tables are created; these tables are derived under the condition that the free end temperature is 6 °C, and different thermocouples have different reference tables. When a third metal material is introduced into the thermocouple loop, as long as the temperatures at its two junctions are identical, the thermoelectromotive force produced by the thermocouple remains unchanged, i.e., it is unaffected by the inclusion of the third metal. Therefore, during thermocouple temperature measurement, a measuring instrument can be connected; once the thermoelectromotive force is measured, the temperature of the measured medium can be determined. Thermocouple temperature measurement requires the cold end temperature (the measurement end is the hot end; the end connected to the measurement circuit via lead wires is called the cold end) to remain constant, so that the thermoelectromotive force maintains a proportional relationship with the measured temperature. If the cold end (ambient) temperature changes during measurement, it will seriously affect measurement accuracy. Taking measures at the cold end to compensate for the impact of cold end temperature changes is called thermocouple cold junction compensation. Dedicated compensation cables are used for connection to the measuring instrument. Thermocouple cold junction compensation calculation methods: (1) From millivolts to temperature: Measure the cold end temperature, convert it to the corresponding millivolt value, add it to the thermocouple's millivolt value, and convert to temperature; (2) From temperature to millivolts: Measure the actual temperature and the cold end temperature, convert each to millivolt values, subtract them to obtain the millivolt value, which yields the temperature.

auer electrical component principle

Lasing principle of laser diodes: The P-N junction in a laser diode is formed by two doped gallium arsenide layers. It has a parallel-end structure, parallel to a mirror at one end (highly reflective surface) and a partially reflective surface at the other. The wavelength of the emitted light is directly related to the length of the junction. When the P-N junction is forward-biased by an external voltage source, electrons move through the junction and recombine as in a standard diode. When electrons recombine with holes, photons are released. These photons strike atoms, causing more photons to be released. As the forward bias current increases, more electrons enter the depletion region, resulting in the emission of more photons. Eventually, some photons drifting randomly within the depletion region strike the reflective surfaces perpendicularly, reflecting back along their original paths. The reflected photons reflect back from the other end of the junction again. This photon movement from one end to the other occurs continuously multiple times. During photon motion, due to the avalanche effect, more atoms release more photons. This process of reflection and generation of increasing numbers of photons produces a very intense laser beam. Each photon generated in the emission process described above is identical to other photons in energy level, phase relationship, and frequency. Therefore, the emission process yields a laser beam of a single wavelength. To produce a laser beam, the current of the laser diode must exceed a certain threshold level. Current below the threshold level forces the diode to behave as an LED, emitting incoherent light.

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