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DIANA Electronic electrical components are commonly used temperature-sensing elements in temperature measurement instruments. They directly measure temperature and convert the temperature signal into a thermoelectric EMF signal, which is then converted into the temperature of the measured medium by an electrical instrument (secondary instrument). The external shapes of various thermocouples often differ significantly depending on requirements, but their basic structures are largely similar, typically consisting of main parts such as hot electrodes, insulating protective tubes, and terminal blocks. They are usually used in conjunction with display instruments, recording instruments, and electronic regulators. In industrial production processes, temperature is one of the important parameters that need to be measured and controlled. In temperature measurement, thermocouples are widely applied due to many advantages such as simple structure, ease of manufacturing, wide measurement range, high accuracy, low inertia, and output signals suitable for long-distance transmission. Additionally, since a thermocouple is a passive sensor that does not require an external power supply during measurement, it is very convenient to use and is often employed to measure the temperature of gases or liquids inside furnaces and pipelines, as well as the surface temperature of solids.

DIANA Electronic electrical components applications

The collector-emitter current can be regarded as being controlled by the base-emitter current, which is equivalent to treating the bipolar transistor as a "current-controlled" device. It can also be viewed as being controlled by the emitter-base junction voltage, i.e., treating it as a "voltage-controlled" device. In fact, these two perspectives are interrelated through the current-voltage relationship across the base-emitter junction, which can be represented by the current-voltage curve of the PN junction. In analog circuit design, the current-controlled viewpoint is sometimes adopted because, within a certain range, the bipolar transistor exhibits approximately linear characteristics. Within this range (referred to below as the "active region"), the collector current is approximately equal to a multiple of the base current, which greatly facilitates problem analysis and control of circuit functions. When designing some basic circuits, it is assumed that the emitter-base voltage is an approximately constant value; in this case, the collector current is approximately equal to several times the base current, and the transistor acts as a current amplifier. However, in reality, a bipolar transistor is a relatively complex nonlinear device, and improper bias voltage allocation will cause distortion of its output signal. Furthermore, even when operating within a specific range, its current amplification factor is affected by factors including temperature. To design precise and reliable bipolar transistor circuits, the voltage-controlled viewpoint must be adopted. The voltage-controlled model introduces an exponential function to describe the voltage-current relationship; within a certain range, the functional relationship is approximately linear, allowing the transistor to be treated as a conductance element. Thus, the design of circuits such as differential amplifiers is simplified to a linear problem, so the approximate voltage-controlled viewpoint is also frequently selected. For translinear circuits, studying their current-voltage curves is crucial for analyzing device operation, so they are typically treated as a voltage-controlled model where transconductance is proportional to the collector current. Transistor-level circuit design mainly uses SPICE or other similar analog circuit simulators, so the complexity of the model does not pose a significant problem for designers. However, when manually analyzing analog circuit problems, it is not always possible to adopt exact calculation methods as in classical circuit analysis, making the use of approximation methods essential.

DIANA Electronic electrical components structure

Three basic configurations of fiber optic sensor networks. There are three basic configurations of fiber optic sensor networks, one of which is called the single-point sensor. Here, a single fiber serves only as a transmission medium. Another type is the multipoint sensor, where a single fiber connects many sensors in series, allowing many sensors to share a light source to achieve networked monitoring. Then there is the intelligent fiber optic sensor. A multipoint fiber optic sensor looks like a section of grating from the outside, revealing periodic intervals under ultraviolet irradiation. When light enters the fiber, if the wavelength of the light exactly equals twice the interval, the light wave will undergo strong reflection. If the fiber is subjected to temperature changes or strain, this reflected wavelength will change. Many such sensors can be made on a single fiber, and connecting them enables various sensing applications. Because optical fiber is flexible, it can be arranged in two-dimensional or three-dimensional spaces, so the horizontal axis represents spatial position and the vertical axis represents the measured object. What problem does such a sensor network solve? It solves the problem of what happened at what location and with what intensity, thereby providing two-dimensional information. This is the problem that intelligent fiber optic sensors need to address. They have very prominent required characteristics, including small size, high strength, good stability, embeddability in materials, resistance to electromagnetic interference, and environmental durability.

DIANA Electronic electrical components applications

The collector-emitter current can be regarded as being controlled by the base-emitter current, which is equivalent to treating the bipolar transistor as a "current-controlled" device. It can also be viewed as being controlled by the emitter-base junction voltage, i.e., treating it as a "voltage-controlled" device. In fact, these two perspectives are interrelated through the current-voltage relationship across the base-emitter junction, which can be represented by the current-voltage curve of the PN junction. In analog circuit design, the current-controlled viewpoint is sometimes adopted because, within a certain range, the bipolar transistor exhibits approximately linear characteristics. Within this range (referred to below as the "active region"), the collector current is approximately equal to a multiple of the base current, which greatly facilitates problem analysis and control of circuit functions. When designing some basic circuits, it is assumed that the emitter-base voltage is an approximately constant value; in this case, the collector current is approximately equal to several times the base current, and the transistor acts as a current amplifier. However, in reality, a bipolar transistor is a relatively complex nonlinear device, and improper bias voltage allocation will cause distortion of its output signal. Furthermore, even when operating within a specific range, its current amplification factor is affected by factors including temperature. To design precise and reliable bipolar transistor circuits, the voltage-controlled viewpoint must be adopted. The voltage-controlled model introduces an exponential function to describe the voltage-current relationship; within a certain range, the functional relationship is approximately linear, allowing the transistor to be treated as a conductance element. Thus, the design of circuits such as differential amplifiers is simplified to a linear problem, so the approximate voltage-controlled viewpoint is also frequently selected. For translinear circuits, studying their current-voltage curves is crucial for analyzing device operation, so they are typically treated as a voltage-controlled model where transconductance is proportional to the collector current. Transistor-level circuit design mainly uses SPICE or other similar analog circuit simulators, so the complexity of the model does not pose a significant problem for designers. However, when manually analyzing analog circuit problems, it is not always possible to adopt exact calculation methods as in classical circuit analysis, making the use of approximation methods essential.

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