GM International electrical components, German GM International models, GM International prices

GM International electrical components include resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, transistors, field-effect transistors, thyristors, transformers, relays, sensors, etc.; electronic devices include analog circuits (operational amplifiers, comparators, signal conditioners), logic circuits (flip-flops, counters, decoders, registers, transceivers, NOT gates, AND gates, OR gates, NAND gates, NOR gates, XOR gates), microcontrollers, memory, digital potentiometers, signal conversion circuits (A/D converters, D/A converters, voltage-to-frequency converters), communication circuits (various interface circuits), monitoring and reset circuits (power supply monitoring, program monitoring), and many others.

GM International electrical component types

Inductors can be made by winding conductive material, typically copper wire, around a magnetic core. The core can also be removed or replaced with ferromagnetic material. Core materials with higher permeability than air confine the magnetic field more tightly around the inductor, thereby increasing inductance. There are many types of inductors; most are made with enamel-coated coils wound around ferrite bobbins, while some shielded inductors place the coil entirely within the ferrite. The cores of some inductor components are adjustable, allowing the inductance value to be changed. Small inductors can be directly etched onto PCB boards using a spiral trace pattern. Low-value inductors can also be fabricated in integrated circuits using the same processes as transistors. In these applications, aluminum interconnects are often used as the conductive material. Regardless of the method, due to practical constraints, the most commonly used approach is a circuit called a "gyrator," which uses a capacitor and active components to exhibit the same characteristics as an inductor. Inductor components used for blocking high frequencies are often constructed from a metal wire passing through a magnetic column or bead.

GM International electrical component characteristics

The static characteristics of a sensor refer to the relationship between the output and input quantities for a static input signal. Since the input and output quantities are independent of time in this case, their relationship, i.e., the static characteristics of the sensor, can be described by an algebraic equation without time variables, or by a characteristic curve plotted with the input quantity as the abscissa and the corresponding output quantity as the ordinate. The main parameters characterizing the static characteristics of a sensor include: linearity, sensitivity, hysteresis, repeatability, drift, etc. (1) Linearity: Refers to the degree to which the actual relationship curve between the sensor's output and input deviates from the fitted straight line. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum deviation between the actual characteristic curve and the fitted straight line over the full scale range to the full-scale output value. (2) Sensitivity: Sensitivity is an important indicator of a sensor's static characteristics. It is defined as the ratio of the increment in the output quantity to the corresponding increment in the input quantity that causes it. S is used to denote sensitivity. (3) Hysteresis: Hysteresis is the phenomenon where the input-output characteristic curves do not coincide when the input quantity changes from small to large (forward stroke) and from large to small (reverse stroke). For the same magnitude of input signal, the output signals for the forward and reverse strokes are unequal; this difference is called the hysteresis error. (4) Repeatability: Repeatability refers to the degree of inconsistency in the characteristic curves obtained when the sensor's input quantity undergoes continuous multiple full-scale changes in the same direction. (5) Drift: Sensor drift refers to the phenomenon where the sensor's output changes over time while the input remains constant. There are two causes of drift: one is the sensor's own structural parameters; the other is the surrounding environment (such as temperature, humidity, etc.). (6) Resolution: When the sensor's input increases slowly from a non-zero value, the output undergoes an observable change after exceeding a certain increment; this input increment is called the sensor's resolution, i.e., the minimum input increment. (7) Threshold: When the sensor's input increases slowly from zero, the output undergoes an observable change after reaching a certain value; this input value is called the sensor's threshold voltage.

GM International electrical component principles

When two different conductors or semiconductors A and B form a loop with their ends connected, as long as the temperatures at the two junctions are different, with one end at temperature T (called the working end or hot end) and the other end at temperature T0 (called the free end or cold end), an electromotive force (EMF) is generated in the loop. The direction and magnitude of this EMF depend on the materials of the conductors and the temperatures of the two junctions. This phenomenon is called the "thermoelectric effect." The loop formed by the two conductors is called a "thermocouple," the two conductors are called "thermoelectrodes," and the generated EMF is called "thermo-EMF." The thermo-EMF consists of two parts: the contact EMF between the two conductors and the temperature-difference EMF of a single conductor. The magnitude of the thermo-EMF in a thermocouple loop depends only on the conductor materials forming the thermocouple and the temperatures of the two junctions, and is independent of the shape and dimensions of the thermocouple. Once the materials of the two thermocouple electrodes are fixed, the thermo-EMF is a function of the difference between the temperatures t and t0 at the two junctions. This relationship is widely applied in practical temperature measurement. Since the cold end t0 is constant, the thermo-EMF generated by the thermocouple changes only with the temperature of the hot end (measurement end); that is, a specific thermo-EMF corresponds to a specific temperature. By measuring the thermo-EMF, the purpose of temperature measurement can be achieved. The basic principle of thermocouple temperature measurement is that a closed loop formed by two conductors of different compositions generates a current when there is a temperature gradient between the two ends, resulting in an EMF—thermo-EMF—between the ends, known as the Seebeck effect. Two homogeneous conductors of different compositions serve as thermoelectrodes; the end with the higher temperature is the working end, and the end with the lower temperature is the free end, which is usually kept at a constant temperature. Based on the functional relationship between thermo-EMF and temperature, thermocouple reference tables are created; these tables are derived under the condition that the free end temperature is 10 °C, and different thermocouples have different reference tables. When a third metal material is introduced into the thermocouple loop, as long as the temperatures at the two junctions of this material are the same, the thermo-EMF generated by the thermocouple remains unchanged, meaning it is unaffected by the introduction of the third metal. Therefore, during thermocouple temperature measurement, a measuring instrument can be connected; once the thermo-EMF is measured, the temperature of the measured medium can be determined. Thermocouple temperature measurement requires the temperature of the cold end (the end connected to the measurement circuit via lead wires, while the measurement end is the hot end) to remain constant so that the thermo-EMF maintains a proportional relationship with the measured temperature. If the (ambient) temperature of the cold end changes during measurement, it will seriously affect the accuracy of the measurement. Taking measures at the cold end to compensate for the effects of temperature changes is called thermocouple cold junction compensation. Special compensation cables are used to connect to the measuring instrument. Calculation methods for thermocouple cold junction compensation: (1) From millivolts to temperature: Measure the cold end temperature, convert it to the corresponding millivolt value, add it to the thermocouple's millivolt value, and convert the sum to temperature; (2) From temperature to millivolts: Measure the actual temperature and the cold end temperature, convert them separately to millivolt values, subtract them to obtain the millivolt value, and thus determine the temperature.

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