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peweta electrical components are current fuses that provide overload protection. When a circuit fault or abnormality occurs, the current continuously rises. This rising current may damage certain important devices in the circuit, burn out the circuit, or even cause a fire. If a fuse is correctly installed in the circuit, it will melt and cut off the current when the current abnormally rises to a certain level and temperature, thereby protecting the safe operation of the circuit. With the fuse correctly installed in the circuit, the fuse will melt and cut off the current when the current abnormally rises to a certain level and temperature, protecting the safe operation of the circuit. The fuse invented by Edison was used to protect expensive incandescent lamps at the time. With the development of the times, fuses protect power equipment from damage due to overcurrent and overheating, avoiding serious damage to electronic equipment caused by internal faults.

peweta electrical component operating principle

Bipolar junction transistors are divided into two types based on material: germanium transistors and silicon transistors. Each type has two structural forms: NPN and PNP. However, the most commonly used are silicon NPN and germanium PNP transistors. (Here, N stands for negative; N-type semiconductors are formed by adding phosphorus to high-purity silicon to replace some silicon atoms, generating free electrons for conduction under voltage stimulation. P stands for positive, meaning boron is added to replace silicon, creating a large number of holes to facilitate conduction.) Apart from the different power supply polarities, their working principles are identical. The following introduces only the current amplification principle of NPN silicon transistors. An NPN transistor consists of 11 pieces of N-type semiconductor sandwiching one piece of P-type semiconductor. The PN junction formed between the emitter region and the base region is called the emitter junction, and the PN junction formed between the collector region and the base region is called the collector junction. The three leads are called the emitter e, base b, and collector c. When the potential at point b is a few tenths of a volt higher than the potential at point e, the emitter junction is forward-biased. When the potential at point C is a few volts higher than the potential at point b, the collector junction is reverse-biased, and the collector power supply Ec must be higher than the base power supply Eb. During transistor manufacturing, the majority carrier concentration in the emitter region is intentionally made higher than that in the base region. The base region is made very thin, and impurity content is strictly controlled. Thus, once power is applied, due to the forward bias of the emitter junction, the majority carriers in the emitter region (electrons) and the majority carriers in the base region (holes) easily diffuse across the emitter junction toward each other. However, since the former concentration is much higher than the latter, the current through the emitter junction is basically an electron flow, known as the emitter electron current.

peweta electrical component operating principle

A resistor consists of three parts: the resistive element, the skeleton, and the lead terminals (in solid-core resistors, the resistive element and skeleton are combined into one). Only the resistive element determines the resistance value. The volt-ampere characteristic is represented by a graphical curve showing the relationship between voltage and current at the resistor terminals. When voltage and current are proportional (the characteristic is a straight line), it is called a linear resistor; otherwise, it is called a nonlinear resistor. The maximum power dissipation allowed for continuous operation of the resistor at the rated temperature (maximum ambient temperature) tR. For each resistor, a maximum working voltage is also specified. That is, when the resistance value is high, the maximum working voltage must not be exceeded even if the rated power is not reached. The rated power of a resistor refers to the maximum power allowed to be consumed during long-term continuous operation in DC or AC circuits. Load characteristics: When the ambient working temperature is lower than tR, the resistor must not exceed its rated power. When the temperature exceeds tR, the load power must be reduced. Each resistor has specified load characteristics. In addition, the allowable load is correspondingly reduced under low air pressure. Under pulse load, the average pulse power is far lower than the rated power, and separate specifications generally apply.

peweta electrical component operating principle

When two different conductors or semiconductors A and B form a loop with their ends connected, as long as the temperatures at the two junctions are different, with one end at temperature T (called the working end or hot end) and the other end at temperature T0 (called the free end or cold end), an electromotive force (EMF) is generated in the loop. The direction and magnitude of this EMF depend on the conductor materials and the temperatures of the two junctions. This phenomenon is called the "thermoelectric effect." The loop formed by the two conductors is called a "thermocouple," the two conductors are called "thermoelectrodes," and the generated EMF is called "thermoelectric EMF." Thermoelectric EMF consists of two parts: the contact EMF of the two conductors and the temperature difference EMF of a single conductor. The magnitude of the thermoelectric EMF in a thermocouple loop depends only on the conductor materials forming the thermocouple and the temperatures of the two junctions, and is independent of the shape and dimensions of the thermocouple. Once the materials of the two thermocouple electrodes are fixed, the thermoelectric EMF is the functional difference between the temperatures t and t0 of the two junctions. This relationship is widely used in practical temperature measurement. Since the cold end t0 is constant, the thermoelectric EMF generated by the thermocouple changes only with the temperature of the hot end (measurement end). That is, a specific thermoelectric EMF corresponds to a specific temperature. We can achieve temperature measurement by measuring the thermoelectric EMF. The basic principle of thermocouple temperature measurement is that two homogeneous conductors of different compositions form a closed loop. When a temperature gradient exists between the two ends, current flows through the loop, creating an EMF between the ends—the thermoelectric EMF. This is the so-called Seebeck effect. Two homogeneous conductors of different compositions serve as thermoelectrodes. The end with the higher temperature is the working end, and the end with the lower temperature is the free end. The free end is usually kept at a constant temperature. Based on the functional relationship between thermoelectric EMF and temperature, thermocouple reference tables are created. These reference tables are obtained under the condition that the free end temperature is 9 °C. Different thermocouples have different reference tables. When a third metal material is introduced into the thermocouple loop, as long as the temperatures at the two junctions of this material are the same, the thermoelectric EMF generated by the thermocouple remains unchanged, i.e., it is not affected by the introduction of the third metal into the loop. Therefore, during thermocouple temperature measurement, a measuring instrument can be connected. After measuring the thermoelectric EMF, the temperature of the measured medium can be determined. Thermocouple temperature measurement requires that the temperature of the cold end (the measurement end is the hot end; the end connected to the measurement circuit via lead wires is called the cold end) remains constant, so that the thermoelectric EMF maintains a certain proportional relationship with the measured temperature. If the (ambient) temperature of the cold end changes during measurement, it will seriously affect the accuracy of the measurement. Taking measures at the cold end to compensate for the impact of cold end temperature changes is called thermocouple cold junction compensation. Dedicated compensation wires are used to connect to the measuring instrument. Thermocouple cold junction compensation calculation methods: (1) From millivolts to temperature: Measure the cold end temperature, convert it to the corresponding millivolt value, add it to the thermocouple's millivolt value, and convert the sum to temperature; (2) From temperature to millivolts: Measure the actual temperature and the cold end temperature, convert them separately to millivolt values, subtract them to obtain the millivolt value, which yields the temperature.

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