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Salzer electrical components are indispensable measuring instruments for departments such as power electronics, generally with the main purpose of measuring voltage, current, and resistance. Multimeters are divided into analog multimeters and digital multimeters according to the display method. It is a multi-function, multi-range measuring instrument. General multimeters can measure DC current, DC voltage, AC current, AC voltage, resistance, and audio levels, etc. Some can also measure AC current, capacitance, inductance, and some semiconductor parameters (such as β), etc. A multimeter is a magnetoelectric instrument with a rectifier that can measure various electrical parameters such as AC and DC current, voltage, and resistance. For each electrical quantity, there are generally several ranges. Also known as a multi-meter or simply multi-meter. A multimeter consists of a magnetoelectric ammeter (meter head), measuring circuit, and selector switch, etc. Through the switching of the selector switch, various electrical parameters can be measured conveniently. The main basis for its circuit calculation is Ohm's law for closed circuits. There are many types of multimeters, and they should be selected according to different requirements during use.

Salzer electrical component principles

A fuel cell is an energy conversion device. It converts the chemical energy stored in fuel and oxidant directly into electrical energy isothermally according to electrochemical principles, i.e., the working principle of a primary battery, so the actual process is an oxidation-reduction reaction. A fuel cell mainly consists of four parts: anode, cathode, electrolyte, and external circuit. Fuel gas and oxidizing gas are introduced through the anode and cathode of the fuel cell, respectively. The fuel gas releases electrons at the anode, and the electrons are conducted to the cathode through the external circuit and combine with the oxidizing gas to generate ions. Under the action of the electric field, the ions migrate through the electrolyte to the anode, react with the fuel gas, form a loop, and generate current. At the same time, due to the electrochemical reaction itself and the internal resistance of the battery, the fuel cell also generates a certain amount of heat. In addition to conducting electrons, the cathode and anode of the battery also serve as catalysts for oxidation-reduction reactions. When the fuel is a hydrocarbon, the anode requires higher catalytic activity. The cathode and anode are usually porous structures to facilitate the introduction of reaction gases and the discharge of products. The electrolyte serves to transmit ions and separate fuel gas and oxidizing gas. To prevent the mixing of the two gases from causing a short circuit inside the battery, the electrolyte is usually a dense structure. The composition of a fuel cell is the same as that of a general battery. Its single cell consists of positive and negative electrodes (the negative electrode is the fuel electrode and the positive electrode is the oxidant electrode) and an electrolyte. The difference is that the active substances of a general battery are stored inside the battery, thus limiting the battery capacity. However, the positive and negative electrodes of a fuel cell do not contain active substances themselves; they are just catalytic conversion elements. Therefore, a fuel cell is truly an energy conversion machine that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. When the battery is working, fuel and oxidant are supplied externally to react. In principle, as long as reactants are continuously input and reaction products are continuously removed, the fuel cell can generate electricity continuously.

Salzer electrical component structure

A bipolar junction transistor is made by fabricating two closely spaced PN junctions on a semiconductor substrate. The two PN junctions divide the entire semiconductor into three parts: the middle part is the base region, and the two sides are the emitter region and the collector region. There are two arrangement types: PNP and NPN. Corresponding electrodes are led out from the three regions, namely the base b, emitter e, and collector c. The PN junction between the emitter region and the base region is called the emitter junction, and the PN junction between the collector region and the base region is called the collector junction. The base region is very thin, while the emitter region is thicker with a high impurity concentration. In a PNP type transistor, the emitter region "emits" holes, whose movement direction is consistent with the current direction, so the emitter arrow points inward; in a NPN type transistor, the emitter region "emits" free electrons, whose movement direction is opposite to the current direction, so the emitter arrow points outward. The direction of the emitter arrow is also the conduction direction of the PN junction under forward voltage. Both silicon and germanium transistors have PNP and NPN types. Transistor package forms and pin identification: Common transistor package forms include metal packages and plastic packages. The pin arrangement follows certain rules. When placed in a bottom-view position, the three pins form the vertices of an isosceles triangle. From left to right, they are e, b, and c. For small and medium-power plastic transistors, when the flat side faces you and the three pins point downward, from left to right they are e, b, and c.

Salzer electrical component characteristics

The static characteristics of a sensor refer to the relationship between the output and input quantities of the sensor for static input signals. Since the input and output quantities are independent of time at this point, their relationship, i.e., the static characteristics of the sensor, can be described by an algebraic equation without time variables, or by a characteristic curve drawn with the input quantity as the abscissa and the corresponding output quantity as the ordinate. The main parameters characterizing the static characteristics of a sensor include: linearity, sensitivity, hysteresis, repeatability, drift, etc. (1) Linearity: Refers to the degree to which the actual relationship curve between the sensor output and input deviates from the fitted straight line. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum deviation between the actual characteristic curve and the fitted straight line within the full scale range to the full scale output value. (2) Sensitivity: Sensitivity is an important indicator of the static characteristics of a sensor. It is defined as the ratio of the increment of the output quantity to the corresponding increment of the input quantity that causes this increment. Use S to represent sensitivity. (3) Hysteresis: The phenomenon where the input-output characteristic curves do not coincide during the change of the input quantity from small to large (forward stroke) and from large to small (reverse stroke) is called hysteresis. For the same magnitude of input signal, the output signal magnitudes of the sensor's forward and reverse strokes are not equal; this difference is called the hysteresis difference. (4) Repeatability: Repeatability refers to the degree of inconsistency in the characteristic curves obtained when the sensor input changes continuously multiple times over the full scale in the same direction. (5) Drift: Sensor drift refers to the phenomenon where the sensor output changes with time while the input remains constant. There are two reasons for drift: one is the sensor's own structural parameters; the other is the surrounding environment (such as temperature, humidity, etc.). (6) Resolution: When the sensor input increases slowly from a non-zero value, a observable change in output occurs after exceeding a certain increment. This input increment is called the sensor's resolution, i.e., the minimum input increment. (7) Threshold: When the sensor input increases slowly from zero, a observable change in output occurs after reaching a certain value. This input value is called the sensor's threshold voltage.

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