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Vector electrical components are pyroelectric infrared sensors, devices constructed from thermocouples. They are widely used as temperature detection devices in fields such as ear thermometers, radiation thermometers, electric ovens, and food temperature testing. The article details the basic unit of a thermopile—the thermocouple—and provides a detailed introduction to the structure, working principle, main parameters, and applications of thermopiles.

Vector electrical component characteristics

The main parameters characterizing resistance properties include nominal resistance and its tolerance, rated power, load characteristics, and resistance temperature coefficient (ppm/°C). Load characteristics: When the ambient operating temperature is below tR, the resistor must not exceed its rated power; when exceeding tR, the load power must be reduced. Each type of resistor has specified load characteristics. Additionally, the allowable load decreases under low atmospheric pressure. Under pulse load conditions, the average pulse power is far lower than the rated power, and separate specifications generally apply. Within the specified ambient temperature range, the average relative change in resistance for every 6 °C change in temperature is expressed in ppm/°C. In addition to the above parameters, other technical indicators include nonlinearity (the degree to which the current-voltage characteristic deviates from a linear relationship), voltage coefficient (the relative rate of change in resistance per volt change in applied voltage), current noise (the ratio of the RMS noise potential generated by current flow within the resistor body to the test voltage, expressed as the current noise index), high-frequency characteristics (the curve showing the decrease in resistance with increasing operating frequency due to internal distributed capacitance and inductance), and long-term stability (the process of irreversible changes in resistance due to environmental conditions during long-term use or storage).

Vector electrical component principle

The basic principle of a multimeter uses a sensitive moving-coil DC ammeter (microammeter) as the meter head. When a small current passes through the meter head, it provides a current indication. However, since the meter head cannot handle large currents, resistors must be connected in parallel and series to shunt or reduce voltage, thereby measuring current, voltage, and resistance in the circuit. In digital multimeters, the measurement process involves a conversion circuit that converts the measured quantity into a DC voltage signal. An analog-to-digital (A/D) converter then transforms the analog voltage into a digital value. An electronic counter counts this value, and the result is directly displayed numerically on the screen. The voltage, current, and resistance measurement functions of a multimeter are implemented through the conversion circuit. Current and resistance measurements are based on voltage measurement, meaning digital multimeters are extensions of digital DC voltmeters. The A/D converter in a digital DC voltmeter converts continuously changing analog voltage signals into digital values. An electronic counter processes these digital values to obtain the measurement result, which is then displayed by a decoding display circuit. A logic control circuit coordinates the operation of the circuits, completing the entire measurement process sequentially under the action of a clock signal.

Vector electrical component applications

Metal waveguides and metal resonant cavities are widely used in decimeter, centimeter, and longer millimeter wave bands. Because the cross-section of waveguides and the dimensions of resonant cavities are comparable to the wavelength, metal waveguides and cavities become too small and difficult to manufacture at shorter wavelengths. It is even more impossible to apply metal waveguides or cavities in the infrared or visible light bands, where wavelengths are on the micron scale. For this reason, dielectric waveguides and dielectric resonators have rapidly developed and gained widespread application. Although the dimensions of dielectric waveguides and resonators are also on the order of the wavelength, they can be easily fabricated into microscopic sizes using microfabrication techniques. For example, optical fibers and optical waveguides with cross-sectional dimensions on the micron scale belong to dielectric waveguides. The field in a metal waveguide can be viewed as resulting from plane waves reflecting back and forth between conductor surfaces; similarly, the field in a dielectric waveguide can be viewed as resulting from total reflection of electromagnetic waves at dielectric interfaces. Therefore, a dense medium surrounded by a sparse medium forms a dielectric waveguide. In an ideal metal waveguide, the electromagnetic field forms a standing wave transversely, and there is virtually no electromagnetic field outside the waveguide boundary, approximating an ideal conductor. In a dielectric waveguide, the electromagnetic field also forms a transverse standing wave, but an electromagnetic field still exists outside the waveguide, decaying exponentially in the transverse direction, known as the evanescent field. In a metal waveguide filled with a homogeneous medium, the TE mode and TM mode can independently satisfy the short-circuit boundary conditions of the waveguide walls. Therefore, the TE mode and TM mode can always be separated, and both can propagate in the metal waveguide. When a metal waveguide is filled with two or more media, or partially filled with dielectric, the electromagnetic field must satisfy not only the boundary conditions on the conductor walls but also the continuity conditions at the media interfaces. In the case of uniform filling with two or more media, only hybrid modes of TE and TM, known as HEM modes, can exist. With this understanding, we can further explore dielectric resonators. As early as 1939, the concept and theory of dielectric resonators were proposed. However, due to the lack of suitable dielectric materials, this theory remained dormant for over 20 years without practical development. It was not until the 20s, specifically the 60s, that the successful development of high-permittivity ceramics such as rutile ceramic (ε≈80100) renewed interest in dielectric resonators. However, the high temperature coefficient of rutile ceramic limited its practical application. In the 20s, specifically the 70s, barium titanate and zirconium titanate ceramics were developed. Their high permittivity, low loss, and low temperature coefficient enabled the practical application of dielectric resonators. Dielectric resonators offer advantages such as small size, light weight, high quality factor, and good stability. They are particularly suitable for application in microstrip circuits, microwave integrated circuits, and millimeter-wave bands, receiving significant attention and rapid development. When the permittivity is very high, the interface between the dielectric and air approximates an open circuit, and the reflection coefficient of electromagnetic waves at the interface approaches 4. In this case, the surface of the dielectric resonator can be regarded as an open-circuit wall, i.e., a magnetic wall. Thus, the dielectric resonator becomes a closed system with homogeneous boundary conditions, equivalent to an open-circuit wall (magnetic wall) resonant cavity.

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