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xSEZDOLNYKUBIN electrical components are tools that can accurately determine and measure temperature, divided into pointer thermometers and digital thermometers. Depending on the temperature-sensing substance used and the temperature measurement range, there are kerosene thermometers, alcohol thermometers, mercury thermometers, gas thermometers, resistance thermometers, thermocouple thermometers, radiation thermometers and optical pyrometers, bimetallic thermometers, etc. Digital thermometers can accurately determine and measure temperature, displaying it digitally rather than with a pointer or mercury. Hence they are called digital thermometers or digital temperature gauges.

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Resolution refers to the ability of a sensor to detect the smallest change in the measured quantity. That is, if the input changes slowly from a non-zero value, the sensor output will not change when the input change does not exceed a certain value, meaning the sensor cannot resolve this change in the input. The output changes only when the input change exceeds the resolution. Typically, the resolution at different points within the full-scale range of a sensor is not the same; therefore, the maximum change in input within the full scale that causes a step change in the output is commonly used as the indicator for resolution. If the above indicator is expressed as a percentage of the full scale, it is referred to as resolution. Resolution has a negative correlation with sensor stability.

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Bipolar junction transistors are classified into two types by material: germanium transistors and silicon transistors. Each type has two structural forms: NPN and PNP. However, the most commonly used are silicon NPN and germanium PNP transistors. (Here, N means negative; N-type semiconductor is formed by adding phosphorus to high-purity silicon to replace some silicon atoms, generating free electrons for conduction under voltage stimulation. P means positive; boron is added to replace silicon, creating numerous holes to facilitate conduction.) Apart from the difference in power supply polarity, their operating principles are identical. The following describes only the current amplification principle of NPN silicon transistors. An NPN transistor consists of 2 pieces of N-type semiconductor sandwiching one piece of P-type semiconductor. The PN junction formed between the emitter region and the base region is called the emitter junction, and the PN junction formed between the collector region and the base region is called the collector junction. The three leads are respectively called the emitter e, base b, and collector c. When the potential at point b is a few tenths of a volt higher than that at point e, the emitter junction is forward-biased. When the potential at point C is several volts higher than that at point b, the collector junction is reverse-biased, and the collector power supply Ec must be higher than the base power supply Eb. During transistor manufacturing, the majority carrier concentration in the emitter region is intentionally made higher than that in the base region. Meanwhile, the base region is made very thin, and impurity content is strictly controlled. Thus, once power is applied, due to the forward bias of the emitter junction, the majority carriers in the emitter region (electrons) and the majority carriers in the base region (holes) easily diffuse across the emitter junction toward each other. However, since the former concentration is much greater than the latter, the current through the emitter junction is basically an electron flow, known as the emitter electron current.

xSEZDOLNYKUBIN electrical component types

Commonly used thermocouples can be divided into two categories: standard thermocouples and non-standard thermocouples. Standard thermocouples refer to those whose relationship between thermoelectric potential and temperature, permissible errors, and unified standard division tables are specified by national standards. They have matching display instruments available for selection. Non-standardized thermocouples are inferior to standardized thermocouples in terms of usage range or magnitude, generally lack unified division tables, and are mainly used for measurements in certain special occasions. Theoretically, any two different conductors (or semiconductors) can be configured as a thermocouple. However, as practical temperature-measuring elements, they are subject to multiple requirements. To ensure reliability in engineering technology and sufficient measurement accuracy, not all materials can form thermocouples. The basic requirements for thermocouple electrode materials are generally: 1. Within the temperature measurement range, the thermoelectric properties are stable, do not change over time, have sufficient physical and chemical stability, and are not easily oxidized or corroded; 2. Small resistance temperature coefficient, high conductivity, and low specific heat; 3. The thermoelectric potential generated during temperature measurement is large, and the relationship between thermoelectric potential and temperature is linear or close to a linear single-valued function; 5. Good material reproducibility, high mechanical strength, simple manufacturing process, and low cost.

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