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Biviator AG electrical components are resistive devices with nonlinear voltage-current characteristics, primarily used for voltage clamping when circuits experience overvoltage, absorbing excess current to protect sensitive components. The resistive body material of varistors is semiconductor, making them a type of semiconductor resistor. The widely used "zinc oxide" varistors today have a main body composed of divalent zinc and hexavalent oxygen. Therefore, from a materials perspective, zinc oxide varistors are a type of "II-VI group oxide semiconductor." In Taiwan, China, varistors are called "surge absorbers," sometimes also referred to as "electric shock (surge) suppressors (absorbers)." Varistors are voltage-limiting protection devices. Utilizing the nonlinear characteristics of varistors, when overvoltage appears across the two poles of a varistor, it can clamp the voltage to a relatively fixed value, thereby protecting downstream circuits. The main parameters of varistors include: varistor voltage, current handling capacity, junction capacitance, response time, etc. The response time of varistors is in the ns range, faster than gas discharge tubes but slightly slower than TVS tubes; generally, their response speed meets the requirements for overvoltage protection in electronic circuits. The junction capacitance of varistors is typically in the range of hundreds to thousands of Pf, making them often unsuitable for direct application in high-frequency signal line protection. When applied in AC circuit protection, their larger junction capacitance increases leakage current, which must be fully considered in protection circuit design. Varistors have a large current handling capacity, though smaller than that of gas discharge tubes. Varistors, abbreviated as VDR, are voltage-sensitive nonlinear overvoltage protection semiconductor components.

Biviator AG electrical component principles

The basic working principle of fiber optic sensors is to guide light from a source through an optical fiber into a modulator, where the parameter to be measured interacts with the light entering the modulation region, causing changes in the optical properties of the light (such as intensity, wavelength, frequency, phase, polarization state, etc.), resulting in modulated signal light. Measurement is then completed by utilizing the influence of the measured quantity on the transmission characteristics of the light. There are two types of measurement principles for fiber optic sensors: (1) Physical property-type fiber optic sensor principle: Physical property-type fiber optic sensors utilize the sensitivity of the optical fiber to environmental changes to convert input physical quantities into modulated optical signals. Their working principle is based on the optical modulation effect of the fiber, meaning that when external environmental factors such as temperature, pressure, electric fields, or magnetic fields change, the light transmission characteristics, such as phase and light intensity, change. Therefore, by measuring the changes in light phase and intensity through the fiber, changes in the measured physical quantity can be determined. These sensors are also known as sensitive element-type or functional fiber optic sensors. The point source beam of a laser is diffused into parallel waves and split by a beam splitter into two paths: one reference path and one measurement path. External parameters (temperature, pressure, vibration, etc.) cause changes in fiber length and optical phase, producing different numbers of interference fringes; counting their lateral movement allows measurement of temperature or pressure. (3) Structural-type fiber optic sensor principle: Structural-type fiber optic sensors are measurement systems composed of photodetection elements (sensitive elements), optical fiber transmission loops, and measurement circuits. Here, the optical fiber serves only as a medium for light propagation, so they are also called transmissive or non-functional fiber optic sensors.

Biviator AG electrical component structure

1. The cathode of an electron tube is the component used to emit electrons, divided into oxide cathodes and thoriated tungsten carbide cathodes. Generally, oxide cathodes are indirectly heated, using a dedicated filament to heat the cathode body coated with barium oxide, etc., for thermionic emission. Thoriated tungsten carbide cathodes are generally directly heated, producing thermionic emission simply by heating, so they serve as both filament and cathode. Theoretically, thoriated tungsten carbide cathodes have a much longer lifespan than oxide cathodes. Thoriated tungsten carbide cathodes are most widely used in high-power transmitting tubes, while oxide cathodes are generally used in transmitting tubes with output power below 1kW. Mesh cathodes are made into cylindrical shapes using thinner thoriated tungsten wires. Their advantages are: ① Because they are woven from many thoriated tungsten wires, they have a higher permeance coefficient. ② It is easier to achieve smaller cathode-grid spacing, which helps improve transconductance. ③ Due to the mesh structure of the filament, the current in each single filament is smaller, the local magnetic field is weaker, and thus the AC hum generated by the cathode current is also smaller. 2. The grids of electron tubes are divided into first grid and second grid based on their roles within the tube, sometimes also called control grid and screen grid. The main role of the first grid is to control cathode current, while the role of the second grid is to shield the first grid from the influence of the anode. The grid structure relates to its own mechanical strength and heat dissipation effectiveness, determining whether the tube can operate stably. To reduce electron transit time, the grid-cathode spacing is made very short, even less than 1mm, so manufacturers often use materials with high mechanical strength, high thermal conductivity, good radiation coefficient, and high melting point to make the grids, to avoid thermal contact between electrodes at such small spacings. The first and second grids should be strictly aligned, so that the screen grid captures fewer electrons, reducing screen grid dissipation, improving current distribution and linearity. 11. The anode of an electron tube is the electrode that collects most of the electrons emitted by the cathode. During operation, due to electron bombardment of the plate surface and thermal radiation from other electrodes, significant heat energy is generated at the plate. Since the power dissipation density of the plate is tens to hundreds of watts per square centimeter, natural radiation or conduction cooling is insufficient. Therefore, forced cooling methods must be used. Common methods include air cooling, water cooling, and evaporative cooling.

Biviator AG electrical component characteristics

The static characteristics of a sensor refer to the relationship between the output and input quantities for static input signals. Since both input and output quantities are independent of time in this case, their relationship, i.e., the static characteristics of the sensor, can be described by an algebraic equation without time variables, or by a characteristic curve plotted with the input quantity as the abscissa and the corresponding output quantity as the ordinate. The main parameters characterizing sensor static characteristics include: linearity, sensitivity, hysteresis, repeatability, drift, etc. ① Linearity: Refers to the degree to which the actual relationship curve between sensor output and input deviates from the fitted straight line. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum deviation between the actual characteristic curve and the fitted straight line over the full scale range to the full-scale output value. ② Sensitivity: Sensitivity is an important indicator of sensor static characteristics. It is defined as the ratio of the increment in output quantity to the corresponding increment in input quantity that causes it. S is used to denote sensitivity. ③ Hysteresis: Hysteresis is the phenomenon where the input-output characteristic curves do not coincide during the change of input quantity from small to large (forward stroke) and from large to small (reverse stroke). For the same magnitude of input signal, the forward and reverse stroke output signals of the sensor are unequal; this difference is called the hysteresis error. ④ Repeatability: Repeatability refers to the degree of inconsistency in the characteristic curves obtained when the sensor input changes continuously multiple times over the full scale in the same direction. ⑤ Drift: Sensor drift refers to the phenomenon where the sensor output changes over time while the input remains constant. There are two causes of drift: one is the sensor's own structural parameters; the other is the surrounding environment (such as temperature, humidity, etc.). ⑥ Resolution: When the sensor input slowly increases from a non-zero value, an observable change in output occurs after exceeding a certain increment; this input increment is called the sensor's resolution, i.e., the minimum input increment. ⑦ Threshold: When the sensor input slowly increases from zero, an observable change in output occurs after reaching a certain value; this input value is called the sensor's threshold voltage.

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