Kontron electrical components German Kontron models Kontron prices

Kontron electrical components are devices that change AC voltage using the principle of electromagnetic induction. The main components are the primary coil, secondary coil, and iron core (magnetic core). Main functions include: voltage transformation, current transformation, impedance transformation, isolation, and voltage stabilization (magnetic saturation transformers). Transformers can be classified by application into: distribution transformers, power transformers, fully sealed transformers, combined transformers, dry-type transformers, oil-immersed transformers, single-phase transformers, electric furnace transformers, rectifier transformers, reactors, anti-interference transformers, lightning protection transformers, box-type substations, test transformers, phase-shifting transformers, high-current transformers, excitation transformers, etc.

Kontron electrical component principles

Potentiometric displacement sensors convert mechanical displacement into resistance or voltage output that has a linear or arbitrary functional relationship with the displacement via potentiometer elements. Standard linear and rotary potentiometers can be used as linear displacement and angular displacement sensors, respectively. However, potentiometers designed for displacement measurement require a definite relationship between displacement change and resistance change. The movable wiper of a potentiometric displacement sensor is connected to the measured object. The object's displacement causes a change in resistance at the moving end of the potentiometer. The magnitude of the resistance change reflects the magnitude of the displacement, while an increase or decrease in resistance indicates the direction of displacement. Typically, a supply voltage is applied across the potentiometer to convert the resistance change into a voltage output. In wire-wound potentiometers, the resistance changes in steps corresponding to the turn-to-turn resistance as the wiper moves, resulting in a stepped output characteristic. If such a displacement sensor is used as a displacement feedback element in a servo system, excessive step voltages can cause system oscillation. Therefore, the resistance per turn should be minimized during potentiometer manufacturing. Another major disadvantage of potentiometric sensors is susceptibility to wear. Their advantages include simple structure, large output signal, ease of use, and low cost.

Kontron electrical component applications

The collector-emitter current can be viewed as controlled by the base-emitter current, which treats the bipolar junction transistor as a "current-controlled" device. It can also be viewed as controlled by the emitter-base junction voltage, treating it as a "voltage-controlled" device. In fact, these two perspectives are interrelated through the current-voltage relationship across the base-emitter junction, which can be represented by the current-voltage curve of the PN junction. In analog circuit design, the current-controlled perspective is sometimes adopted because bipolar transistors exhibit approximately linear characteristics within a certain range. Within this range (referred to below as the "active region"), the collector current is approximately equal to a multiple of the base current, which greatly facilitates problem analysis and control of circuit functionality. When designing some basic circuits, it is assumed that the emitter-base voltage is approximately constant; in this case, the collector current is approximately equal to a multiple of the base current, and the transistor acts as a current amplifier. However, in reality, bipolar transistors are complex nonlinear devices, and improper bias voltage allocation will distort the output signal. Furthermore, even when operating within a specific range, the current gain is affected by factors including temperature. To design precise and reliable bipolar transistor circuits, the voltage-controlled perspective must be adopted. The voltage-controlled model introduces an exponential function to describe the voltage-current relationship. Within a certain range, the functional relationship is approximately linear, allowing the transistor to be treated as a conductance element. Thus, the design of circuits such as differential amplifiers is simplified to a linear problem, so the approximate voltage-controlled perspective is often selected. For translinear circuits, studying their current-voltage curves is critical for analyzing device operation, so they are typically treated as voltage-controlled models where transconductance is proportional to the collector current. Transistor-level circuit design primarily uses SPICE or other similar analog circuit simulators, so the complexity of the model does not pose a significant problem for designers. However, when manually analyzing analog circuits, it is not always possible to adopt exact calculation methods as in classical circuit analysis, making approximate methods necessary.

Kontron electrical component characteristics

(1) Volt-ampere characteristics: When a forward voltage is applied to a diode, the current is extremely small when the voltage value is low. When the voltage exceeds a certain value, the current begins to increase exponentially; this is typically called the diode's turn-on voltage, and the diode is in a fully conducting state. This voltage is typically called the diode's conduction voltage. For germanium diodes, when a reverse voltage is applied, the current is extremely small when the voltage value is low; this current value is the reverse saturation current. When the reverse voltage exceeds a certain value, the current increases sharply, known as reverse breakdown, and this voltage is called the diode's reverse breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage values differ significantly among different diode models, ranging from tens of volts to thousands of volts. (2) Forward characteristics: When a forward voltage is applied, in the initial part of the forward characteristic, the forward voltage is very small and insufficient to overcome the blocking effect of the electric field within the PN junction, so the forward current is almost zero. This section is called the dead zone. The forward voltage that cannot cause the diode to conduct is called the dead-zone voltage. When the forward voltage exceeds the dead-zone voltage, the electric field within the PN junction is overcome, the diode conducts in the forward direction, and the current rises rapidly as the voltage increases. Within the normal operating current range, the terminal voltage of the diode during conduction remains almost constant; this voltage is called the diode's forward voltage. When the forward voltage across the diode exceeds a certain value, the internal electric field is quickly weakened, the characteristic current grows rapidly, and the diode conducts in the forward direction; this is called the threshold voltage or cut-in voltage. (3) Reverse characteristics: When the applied reverse voltage does not exceed a certain range, the current flowing through the diode is a reverse current formed by the drift motion of minority carriers. Since the reverse current is very small, the diode is in the cutoff state. This reverse current is also called the reverse saturation current or leakage current. The reverse saturation current of a diode is greatly affected by temperature. Generally, the reverse current of silicon tubes is much smaller than that of germanium tubes. The reverse saturation current of low-power silicon tubes is on the order of nA, while that of low-power germanium tubes is on the order of μA. As temperature rises, semiconductors are thermally excited, the number of minority carriers increases, and the reverse saturation current also increases. (4) Breakdown characteristics: When the applied reverse voltage exceeds a certain value, the reverse current suddenly increases. This phenomenon is called electrical breakdown. The critical voltage causing electrical breakdown is called the diode's reverse breakdown voltage. During electrical breakdown, the diode loses its unidirectional conductivity. If the diode does not overheat due to electrical breakdown, its unidirectional conductivity is not necessarily permanently destroyed; after removing the applied voltage, its performance can still recover. Otherwise, the diode is damaged. Therefore, excessively high reverse voltages applied to the diode should be avoided during use. Reverse breakdown is divided into Zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown based on mechanism. In cases of high doping concentration, the barrier region width is very small. When the reverse voltage is high, the covalent bond structure within the barrier region is destroyed, freeing valence electrons from covalent bonds and generating electron-hole pairs, causing the current to increase sharply. This breakdown is called Zener breakdown. If the doping concentration is lower and the barrier region width is wider, Zener breakdown is less likely to occur. Another type of breakdown is avalanche breakdown. When the reverse voltage increases to a large value, the external electric field accelerates electron drift velocity, causing collisions with valence electrons in covalent bonds. This knocks valence electrons out of covalent bonds, generating new electron-hole pairs. The newly generated electron-hole pairs are accelerated by the electric field and knock out other valence electrons, causing an avalanche-like increase in carriers and a sharp increase in current. This breakdown is called avalanche breakdown. Regardless of the type of breakdown, if the current is not limited, it may cause permanent damage to the PN junction. (5) Reverse current: Reverse current refers to the current flowing through the diode when it is subjected to ambient temperature and the maximum reverse voltage. The smaller the reverse current, the better the unidirectional conductivity of the device. It is worth noting that reverse current is closely related to temperature; the reverse current doubles. Therefore, silicon diodes have better stability at high temperatures than germanium diodes. (6) Dynamic resistance: The ratio of the change in voltage near the static operating point of the diode characteristic curve to the corresponding change in current. (7) Voltage temperature coefficient: The voltage temperature coefficient refers to the relative change in stable voltage for every one-degree Celsius increase in temperature. (8) Maximum operating frequency: The maximum operating frequency is the upper frequency limit for diode operation. Like the PN junction, the diode's junction capacitance consists of barrier capacitance. Therefore, the value of the maximum operating frequency mainly depends on the size of the PN junction capacitance. If this value is exceeded, unidirectional conductivity will be affected. (9) Maximum rectified current: Maximum rectified current refers to the maximum allowable average forward current when the diode operates continuously for a long period. Its value is related to the PN junction area and external heat dissipation conditions. Because current flow through the tube causes the core to heat up and the temperature to rise, exceeding the permissible limit will cause the core to overheat and become damaged. Therefore, under specified heat dissipation conditions, the diode should not exceed its maximum rectified current value during use.(10) Maximum reverse working voltage: When the reverse voltage applied across the diode reaches a certain high value, the tube will break down and lose its unidirectional conductivity. To ensure safe operation, a maximum reverse working voltage value is specified.

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