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achenbach electrical components are instruments used to transform voltage. However, the purpose of a transformer in transforming voltage is to facilitate the transmission of electrical energy, so its capacity is large, generally calculated in kilovolt-amperes or megavolt-amperes; whereas the purpose of a voltage transformer in transforming voltage is mainly to supply power to measuring instruments and relay protection devices, to measure the voltage, power and electrical energy of the line, or to protect valuable equipment, motors and transformers in the line when a fault occurs. Therefore, the capacity of a voltage transformer is very small, generally only a few volt-amperes or tens of volt-amperes, and the maximum does not exceed one thousand volt-amperes.

achenbach electrical component principle

An NPN type bipolar transistor can be regarded as two diodes sharing an anode connected together. In the normal operating state of a bipolar transistor, the base-emitter junction is forward-biased, while the base-collector junction is reverse-biased. When no external voltage is applied, the electron concentration in the N region of the emitter junction is greater than that in the P region, and some electrons will diffuse into the P region. Similarly, some holes in the P region will also diffuse into the N region. In this way, a space charge region forms at the emitter junction, generating an internal electric field directed from the N region to the P region. This field hinders further diffusion, achieving dynamic equilibrium. At this point, if a forward voltage is applied to the emitter junction, the dynamic balance between the carrier diffusion motion and the internal electric field in the depletion layer is broken, causing thermally excited electrons to inject into the base region. In an NPN type transistor, the base region is P-type doped, where holes are the majority dopants, so electrons in this region are called "minority carriers". Electrons injected from the emitter into the base region partly recombine with the majority carrier holes there. On the other hand, due to the low doping level and thin physical dimension of the base region, and because the collector junction is reverse-biased, most electrons reach the collector region via drift motion, forming the collector current. To minimize recombination before electrons reach the collector junction, the base region must be made sufficiently thin so that the time required for carrier diffusion is shorter than the lifetime of semiconductor minority carriers, and the base thickness must be much smaller than the electron diffusion length. In modern bipolar transistors, the typical base region thickness is a few tenths of a micrometer. It should be noted that although both the collector and emitter are N-type doped, their doping levels and physical properties are not identical; therefore, a bipolar transistor must be distinguished from a configuration of two diodes connected in series in opposite directions.

achenbach electrical component characteristics

So-called dynamic characteristics refer to the output characteristics of a sensor when the input changes. In practical work, the dynamic characteristics of a sensor are often expressed by its response to certain standard input signals. This is because the sensor's response to standard input signals is easy to obtain experimentally, and there is a certain relationship between its response to standard input signals and its response to arbitrary input signals; often, knowing the former allows inference of the latter. The most commonly used standard input signals are step signals and sinusoidal signals, so the dynamic characteristics of sensors are also commonly expressed by step response and frequency response.

achenbach electrical component classification

Based on structural differences, they are classified into full-availability trunks, partial-availability trunks, and link systems; based on service modes, they are classified into loss-system trunks and waiting-system trunks (see stochastic service systems); based on the number of traffic sources served, they are classified into infinite-traffic-source trunks and finite-traffic-source trunks. In telecommunications systems, equipment directly used for communication between users is mostly an infinite-traffic-source loss-system full-availability link system, while equipment used to control the connection process of communication devices is mostly an infinite-traffic-source waiting-system full-availability system. When the number of traffic sources is not very large relative to the trunk capacity, a finite-traffic-source full-availability system or partial-availability system is generally adopted. Based on the call behavior of traffic sources, i.e., whether new call attempts are made after a user's call fails, trunks can be divided into repeated-call systems and non-repeated-call systems. Actual communication systems all involve repeated calls; non-repeated-call systems are an approximation of repeated-call systems. ① Full-availability trunks. If any service device (trunk line or selector) in the trunk can be used by any traffic source in the group of traffic sources it serves, such a trunk is called a full-availability trunk. ② Partial-availability trunks. If any traffic source in the traffic source group can only use part of the service devices in the trunk, such a trunk is called a partial-availability trunk. Partial-availability trunks divide the traffic source group into several subgroups, performing grading and multiple interconnections between the outlets of the traffic groups. This structure can be described by the example shown in the figure below.

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