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gn netcom electrical components are indispensable measuring instruments for departments such as power electronics, generally aimed at measuring voltage, current, and resistance. Multimeters are classified into analog multimeters and digital multimeters according to their display method. They are multifunctional, multi-range measuring instruments. General multimeters can measure DC current, DC voltage, AC current, AC voltage, resistance, and audio levels; some can also measure AC current, capacitance, inductance, and certain semiconductor parameters (such as β). A multimeter is a magnetoelectric instrument equipped with a rectifier, capable of measuring various electrical parameters such as AC/DC current, voltage, and resistance. For each electrical quantity, there are generally several ranges. Also known as a multitester or simply tester. A multimeter consists of a magnetoelectric ammeter (meter head), measuring circuit, and selector switch. By switching the selector switch, various electrical parameters can be measured conveniently. The main basis for its circuit calculation is Ohm's law for closed circuits. There are many types of multimeters, which should be selected according to different requirements during use.

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(1) Electromotive force: Electromotive force is the difference between the equilibrium electrode potentials of two electrodes. (2) Rated capacity: The theoretical capacity of a battery can be precisely calculated based on the amount of active material in the electrode reaction formula and the electrochemical equivalent of the active material calculated according to Faraday's law. Due to possible side reactions in the battery and special design needs, the actual capacity of the battery is often lower than the theoretical capacity. (3) Rated voltage: The typical operating voltage of a battery at room temperature, also known as nominal voltage. It serves as a reference when selecting different types of batteries. The actual operating voltage of a battery equals the difference between the equilibrium electrode potentials of the positive and negative electrodes under different usage conditions. It is related only to the type of electrode active material, not to the quantity of active material. Battery voltage is essentially DC voltage, but under certain special conditions, phase changes in metal crystals or certain formation films caused by electrode reactions can cause slight voltage fluctuations, a phenomenon known as noise. The amplitude of the fluctuation is very small, but the frequency range is very wide, so it can be distinguished from self-excited noise in the circuit. (4) Open-circuit voltage: The terminal voltage of a battery in an open-circuit state is called the open-circuit voltage. The open-circuit voltage of a battery equals the difference between the positive electrode potential and the negative electrode potential when the battery is in an open circuit (i.e., no current flows through the two poles). The open-circuit voltage of a battery is denoted by V, and the open-circuit voltage of a battery is generally less than its electromotive force. This is because the electrode potentials established by the two poles in the electrolyte solution are usually not equilibrium electrode potentials, but stable electrode potentials. It can be approximately considered that the open-circuit voltage of a battery is its electromotive force. (5) Internal resistance: The internal resistance of a battery refers to the resistance encountered when current passes through the interior of the battery. It includes ohmic internal resistance and polarization internal resistance; polarization internal resistance further includes electrochemical polarization internal resistance and concentration polarization internal resistance. Due to the existence of internal resistance, the working voltage of a battery is always less than the electromotive force or open-circuit voltage of the battery. The internal resistance of a battery is not constant; it changes continuously over time (gradually increasing) during charging and discharging processes because the composition of active materials, the concentration of electrolyte, and temperature are constantly changing. Ohmic internal resistance obeys Ohm's law, while polarization internal resistance increases with increasing current density, but not in a linear relationship. It often increases with increasing current density. Internal resistance is an important indicator determining battery performance; it directly affects the working voltage, working current, output energy, and power of the battery. For a battery, the smaller the internal resistance, the better. (6) Impedance: A battery has a large electrode-electrolyte interface area, so the battery can be equivalent to a series circuit of a large capacitor with a small resistor and inductor. However, the actual situation is much more complex, especially since the impedance of the battery changes with time and DC level, so the measured impedance is only valid for the specific measurement state. (7) Charge/discharge rate: There are two representation methods: hour rate and C-rate. The hour rate is the charge/discharge rate expressed by charge/discharge time, numerically equal to the number of hours obtained by dividing the rated capacity of the battery (ampere-hours) by the specified charge/discharge current (amperes). The C-rate is another representation of the charge/discharge rate, and its value is the reciprocal of the hour rate. The discharge rate of a primary battery is expressed by the time it takes to discharge through a fixed resistor to the cutoff voltage. The discharge rate has a significant impact on battery performance. (8) Service life: Storage life refers to the maximum allowable storage time from battery manufacture to the start of use, measured in years. The total period including the storage period and the usage period is called the validity period of the battery. The storage life of batteries is divided into dry storage life and wet storage life. Cycle life is the maximum number of charge/discharge cycles a rechargeable battery can achieve under specified conditions. When specifying cycle life, the charge/discharge cycle test regime must also be specified, including charge/discharge rate, depth of discharge, and ambient temperature range. (9) Self-discharge rate: The rate at which a battery loses capacity on its own during storage. It is expressed as the percentage of capacity lost due to self-discharge per unit storage time relative to the capacity before storage.

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Low-power resistors are typically composed of carbon film encapsulated in a plastic housing, while high-power resistors are typically wirewound resistors, made by winding metal wire with high resistivity around a ceramic core. If the resistance value of a resistor is close to zero ohms (for example, a large-cross-section wire between two points), the resistor offers no obstruction to current, and the circuit parallel to such a resistor is short-circuited, resulting in infinite current. If a resistor has infinite or very high resistance, the circuit series-connected with this resistor can be regarded as an open circuit, with zero current. Resistors commonly used in industry lie between these two extremes; they have a certain resistance and allow a certain current to pass, but the current is not as large as in a short circuit. The current-limiting function of a resistor is similar to the function of a small-diameter pipe connected between two large-diameter pipes restricting water flow. Resistance, usually abbreviated as R, is a fundamental property of a conductor, related to the conductor's size, material, and temperature. Ohm's law states that I = U/R, so R = U/I. The basic unit of resistance is the ohm, represented by the Greek letter 'Ω'. It is defined as: the resistance corresponding to one ampere of current generated when one volt of voltage is applied across a conductor. The main function of a resistor is to obstruct the flow of current. In fact, 'resistance' refers to a property, while 'resistor' usually refers to the component itself in electronic products. Ohm is often abbreviated as 'Ohm'. Common units for expressing resistance values also include kilo-ohm (kΩ), mega-ohm (MΩ), and milli-ohm (m Ω).

gn netcom electrical component principles

Microphones have evolved from initial resistance-based electro-acoustic conversion to inductive and capacitive conversion. Many new microphone technologies have gradually developed, including aluminum ribbon dynamic microphones, as well as the currently widely used condenser microphones and electret microphones. The working principle of a dynamic microphone is that human voice vibrates the diaphragm through air, and then the electromagnetic coil winding on the diaphragm cuts the magnetic field formed by the magnet surrounding the dynamic microphone head, generating a weak fluctuating current. The current is transmitted to the amplifier, which converts the fluctuating current back into sound through the reverse process. For ribbon microphones, the aluminum ribbon serves as both the microphone diaphragm and the conductor moving in the magnetic field. The ribbon is usually made of aluminum foil. To achieve an ideal resonance frequency, the ribbon is corrugated to maintain a precise tension value. As a conductor and microphone diaphragm, the ribbon is suspended in the magnetic field between the two magnetic pole faces, vibrating with the frequency of the incident sound wave, thereby generating a certain voltage output at both ends of the ribbon. A condenser microphone has two metal plates, one of which is coated with an electret film and grounded, while the other plate is connected to the gate of a field-effect transistor (FET), with a diode connected between the gate and the source. The diaphragm of a condenser microphone mostly uses perfluoroethylene propylene, which has good humidity performance, generates more surface charge, and is less affected by humidity. Since this transducer is also of capacitive structure with high internal signal resistance, its output end must also use a field-effect transistor to extract and amplify the voltage signal generated by sound.

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