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INSET electrical components are linear devices based on metallic induction. The function of a sensor is to convert various measured physical quantities into electrical signals. In production processes, displacement measurement is generally divided into two types: measuring physical dimensions and measuring mechanical displacement. Depending on the form of transformation of the measured variable, displacement sensors can be classified as analog or digital. Analog types can be further divided into property-based and structural types. Commonly used displacement sensors are mostly analog structural types, including potentiometric displacement sensors, inductive displacement sensors, synchros, capacitive displacement sensors, eddy-current displacement sensors, and Hall-effect displacement sensors. A major advantage of digital displacement sensors is that they facilitate direct input of signals into computer systems. Displacement is a quantity related to the movement of an object's position during motion, and the scope of displacement measurement methods is quite extensive. Small displacements are typically detected using strain-gauge, inductive, differential transformer, eddy-current, and Hall-effect sensors. Large displacements are commonly measured using sensing technologies such as resolvers, optical gratings, capacitive gratings, and magnetic gratings. Among these, optical grating sensors are increasingly widely used in industries such as machine tool machining and testing instruments due to advantages such as ease of digitization, high precision (with current highest resolution reaching the nanometer level), strong anti-interference capability, absence of human reading errors, convenient installation, and reliable operation.

INSET electrical component principles

A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts optical signals into electrical signals. Its core part is also a PN junction. Compared with ordinary diodes, the structural differences are that, to facilitate the reception of incident light, the PN junction area is made as large as possible, the electrode area is made as small as possible, and the junction depth of the PN junction is very shallow, generally less than 6 micrometers. Photodiodes operate under reverse bias. When there is no illumination, the reverse current is very small, known as dark current. When illuminated, photons carrying energy enter the PN junction and transfer energy to bound electrons in covalent bonds, causing some electrons to break free from the covalent bonds, thereby generating electron-hole pairs, known as photogenerated carriers. Under the influence of reverse voltage, they participate in drift motion, causing the reverse current to increase significantly. The greater the light intensity, the larger the reverse current. This characteristic is called "photoconductivity." The current generated by a photodiode under general illumination is called photocurrent. If a load is connected in the external circuit, the load receives an electrical signal, and this electrical signal changes correspondingly with changes in light. Photodiodes are photosensitive devices widely used in electronic circuits. Like ordinary diodes, photodiodes have a PN junction. The difference is that the photodiode housing has a transparent window to receive light irradiation, achieving photoelectric conversion. The text symbol in circuit diagrams is generally VD.

INSET electrical component performance

(1) Electromotive force: Electromotive force is the difference between the equilibrium electrode potentials of two electrodes. (2) Rated capacity: The theoretical capacity of a battery can be precisely calculated based on the amount of active electrode material in the battery reaction equation and the electrochemical equivalent of the active material calculated according to Faraday's law. Due to possible side reactions in the battery and special design requirements, the actual capacity of a battery is often lower than the theoretical capacity. (3) Rated voltage: The typical operating voltage of a battery at room temperature, also known as nominal voltage. It serves as a reference when selecting different types of batteries. The actual operating voltage of a battery equals the difference between the equilibrium electrode potentials of the positive and negative electrodes under different usage conditions. It is related only to the type of electrode active material, not to the quantity of active material. Battery voltage is essentially DC voltage, but under certain special conditions, phase changes in metal crystals or certain formation films caused by electrode reactions can cause minor voltage fluctuations, a phenomenon known as noise. The amplitude of fluctuation is very small but the frequency range is very wide, distinguishing it from self-excited noise in circuits. (4) Open-circuit voltage: The terminal voltage of a battery in an open-circuit state is called the open-circuit voltage. The open-circuit voltage of a battery equals the difference between the positive electrode potential and the negative electrode potential when the battery is in an open circuit (i.e., no current flows through the two poles). The open-circuit voltage of a battery is denoted by V open. The open-circuit voltage of a battery is generally lower than its electromotive force. This is because the electrode potentials established by the two poles in the electrolyte solution are usually not equilibrium electrode potentials, but stable electrode potentials. It can generally be approximated that the open-circuit voltage of a battery is its electromotive force. (5) Internal resistance: The internal resistance of a battery refers to the resistance encountered when current passes through the interior of the battery. It includes ohmic internal resistance and polarization internal resistance; polarization internal resistance further includes electrochemical polarization internal resistance and concentration polarization internal resistance. Due to the presence of internal resistance, the operating voltage of a battery is always lower than its electromotive force or open-circuit voltage. The internal resistance of a battery is not constant; it changes continuously over time (gradually increasing) during charging and discharging because the composition of active materials, the concentration of the electrolyte, and the temperature are constantly changing. Ohmic internal resistance obeys Ohm's law. Polarization internal resistance increases with increasing current density, but the relationship is not linear; it commonly increases as current density increases. Internal resistance is an important indicator determining battery performance, directly affecting the battery's operating voltage, operating current, output energy, and power. For a battery, the smaller the internal resistance, the better. (6) Impedance: A battery has a large electrode-electrolyte interface area, so it can be equivalent to a series circuit of a large capacitor with a small resistor and inductor. However, the actual situation is much more complex, especially since the battery's impedance changes with time and DC level. The measured impedance is valid only for the specific measurement state. (7) Charge/discharge rate: There are two representation methods: hour rate and C-rate. The hour rate expresses the charge/discharge rate in terms of charge/discharge time; numerically, it equals the battery's rated capacity (ampere-hours) divided by the specified charge/discharge current (amperes), resulting in hours. The C-rate is another way to express the charge/discharge rate, and its value is the reciprocal of the hour rate. The discharge rate of a primary battery is expressed by the time it takes to discharge through a fixed resistor to the cutoff voltage. The discharge rate has a significant impact on battery performance. (8) Service life: Storage life refers to the maximum allowable storage time from battery manufacture to the start of use, measured in years. The total period, including the storage period and the usage period, is called the battery's shelf life. The storage life of batteries is distinguished into dry storage life and wet storage life. Cycle life is the maximum number of charge/discharge cycles a rechargeable battery can achieve under specified conditions. When specifying cycle life, the charge/discharge cycle test protocol must also be specified, including charge/discharge rate, depth of discharge, and ambient temperature range. (9) Self-discharge rate: The rate at which a battery loses capacity spontaneously during storage. It is expressed as the percentage of capacity lost due to self-discharge per unit of storage time relative to the capacity before storage.

INSET electrical component classification

Printed circuit boards are broadly classified into three categories by layer count: single-sided boards, double-sided boards, and multilayer boards. First, single-sided boards: on the most basic PCB, components are concentrated on one side, while conductive traces are concentrated on the other side. Because traces appear on only one side, this type of PCB is called a single-sided printed circuit board. Single-sided boards are typically simple to manufacture and low in cost, but their disadvantage is that they cannot be applied to overly complex products. Double-sided boards are an extension of single-sided boards. When single-layer routing cannot meet the needs of electronic products, double-sided boards are used. Both sides have copper cladding and traces, and vias can be used to connect circuits between the two layers, forming the required network connections. Multilayer boards refer to printed circuit boards formed by laminating more than three conductive graphic layers with insulating materials in between, with interconnections between the conductive graphics as required. Multilayer printed circuit boards are the product of the development of electronic information technology toward high speed, multifunctionality, large capacity, small volume, thin profile, and lightweight. Printed circuit boards are classified by characteristics into flexible boards (FPC), rigid boards (PCB), and rigid-flex boards (FPCB).

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