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kissling electrical components are photodetectors that convert light into current or voltage signals depending on the mode of use. The die often uses a photosensitive PN junction, which is highly sensitive to changes in light, exhibits unidirectional conductivity, and changes its electrical characteristics with varying light intensity; therefore, the current in the circuit can be altered by the intensity of illumination. Photodiodes are also called photoelectric diodes. Photodiodes are similar in structure to semiconductor diodes; their die is a photosensitive PN junction with unidirectional conductivity, so a reverse voltage must be applied during operation. In the absence of light, there is a very small saturated reverse leakage current, known as dark current, at which point the photodiode is cut off. When exposed to light, the saturated reverse leakage current increases significantly, forming a photocurrent that varies with the intensity of the incident light. When light irradiates the PN junction, it generates electron-hole pairs in the PN junction, increasing the density of minority carriers. These carriers drift under the reverse voltage, causing the reverse current to increase. Therefore, the current in the circuit can be changed by the intensity of illumination.

kissling electrical component functions

To obtain information from the external environment, people must rely on their sensory organs. However, relying solely on human sensory organs is far insufficient for studying natural phenomena and laws, as well as for production activities. To adapt to this situation, sensors are required. Therefore, it can be said that sensors are an extension of the human five senses, also known as electronic senses. With the advent of the new technological revolution, the world has entered the information age. In the process of utilizing information, the primary challenge is to acquire accurate and reliable information, and sensors are the main means and approach for obtaining information in the natural and production fields. In modern industrial production, especially in automated manufacturing processes, various sensors are used to monitor and control parameters throughout the production process, ensuring that equipment operates in a normal or optimal state and that products achieve the best quality. Therefore, it can be said that without numerous high-quality sensors, modern production would lose its foundation. In basic scientific research, sensors hold an even more prominent position. The development of modern science and technology has entered many new fields: for example, observing the vast universe spanning thousands of light-years on the macroscopic scale, observing the particle world as small as fm on the microscopic scale, observing celestial evolution over hundreds of thousands of years in the longitudinal dimension, and instantaneous reactions as short as s. In addition, various extreme technologies have emerged that play an important role in deepening the understanding of matter, exploring new energy sources, and developing new materials, such as ultra-high temperature, ultra-low temperature, ultra-high pressure, ultra-high vacuum, ultra-strong magnetic fields, and ultra-weak magnetic fields. Obviously, it is impossible to obtain large amounts of information that human senses cannot directly access without appropriate sensors. Many obstacles in basic scientific research lie first in the difficulty of acquiring information about the object, and the emergence of new mechanisms and high-sensitivity detection sensors often leads to breakthroughs in these fields. The development of some sensors is often the pioneer of interdisciplinary development. Sensors have long penetrated into extremely broad fields such as industrial production, space exploration, ocean exploration, environmental protection, resource surveys, medical diagnosis, bioengineering, and even cultural relic preservation. It is no exaggeration to say that from outer space to the vast oceans, and even various complex engineering systems, almost every modern project relies on various types of sensors.

kissling electrical component features

(1) often compares sensor functions to the 5 major human sensory organs: photosensitive sensors for vision, acoustic sensors for hearing, gas-sensitive sensors for smell, chemical sensors for taste, and pressure-, temperature-, and fluid-sensitive sensors for touch. (2) Classification of sensitive elements: Physical type, based on physical effects such as force, heat, light, electricity, magnetism, and sound. Chemical type, based on the principles of chemical reactions. Biological type, based on molecular recognition functions such as enzymes, antibodies, and hormones. Usually, they can be divided into ten major categories based on their basic sensing functions: thermosensitive elements, photosensitive elements, gas-sensitive elements, force-sensitive elements, magneto-sensitive elements, humidity-sensitive elements, acoustic-sensitive elements, radiation-sensitive elements, color-sensitive elements, and taste-sensitive elements (some have also classified sensitive elements into 47 categories).

kissling electrical component principles

In chemical batteries, the direct conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy relies on the results of spontaneous oxidation-reduction and other chemical reactions occurring inside the battery; these reactions take place at two electrodes. The negative electrode active material consists of reducing agents with a more negative potential and stability in the electrolyte, such as active metals like zinc, cadmium, and lead, as well as hydrogen or hydrocarbons. The positive electrode active material consists of oxidizing agents with a more positive potential and stability in the electrolyte, such as metal oxides like manganese dioxide, lead dioxide, and nickel oxide, oxygen or air, halogens and their salts, oxyacids and their salts, etc. The electrolyte is a material with good ionic conductivity, such as aqueous solutions of acids, bases, and salts, organic or inorganic non-aqueous solutions, molten salts, or solid electrolytes. When the external circuit is open, although there is a potential difference (open-circuit voltage) between the two poles, no current flows, and the chemical energy stored in the battery is not converted into electrical energy. When the external circuit is closed, current flows through the external circuit under the action of the potential difference between the two electrodes. Meanwhile, inside the battery, since there are no free electrons in the electrolyte, charge transfer must be accompanied by oxidation or reduction reactions at the interface between the active materials of the two electrodes and the electrolyte, as well as mass transfer of reactants and reaction products. Charge transfer in the electrolyte must also be completed by ion migration. Therefore, normal charge and mass transfer processes inside the battery are necessary conditions for ensuring normal electrical energy output. During charging, the direction of charge and mass transfer processes inside the battery is exactly opposite to that during discharge; electrode reactions must be reversible to ensure the normal progress of reverse mass and charge transfer processes. Therefore, reversibility of electrode reactions is a necessary condition for constituting a storage battery. This is the basic thermodynamic relationship between battery electromotive force and battery reactions, and also the basic thermodynamic equation for calculating battery energy conversion efficiency. In practice, when current flows through the electrodes, the electrode potential deviates from the thermodynamically balanced electrode potential; this phenomenon is called polarization. The greater the current density (current passing through per unit electrode area), the more severe the polarization. Polarization is one of the important causes of battery energy loss. There are three causes of polarization: (1) polarization caused by the resistance of various parts in the battery is called ohmic polarization; (2) polarization caused by the hindrance of charge transfer processes in the electrode-electrolyte interface layer is called activation polarization; (3) polarization caused by sluggish mass transfer processes in the electrode-electrolyte interface layer is called concentration polarization. Methods to reduce polarization include increasing the electrode reaction area, reducing current density, increasing reaction temperature, and improving the catalytic activity of the electrode surface.

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