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micro technologies electrical components are among the earliest devices for amplifying electrical signals. The cathode electron emission section, control grid, accelerating grid, and anode (plate) leads, enclosed in a glass container (typically a glass tube), are welded to the tube base. An electric field is used to inject an electron-modulated signal into the control grid in a vacuum, and different parameter signal data resulting from signal amplification or feedback oscillation are obtained at the anode. Initially applied in electronic products such as televisions, radios, and loudspeakers, they were gradually replaced by amplifiers and integrated circuits made from semiconductor materials. However, in some high-fidelity audio equipment, vacuum tubes with low noise and high stability factors are still used as audio power amplification devices (in Hong Kong, vacuum tube power amplifiers are referred to as "tube amps").

micro technologies electrical component principles

The primary material of ferrite beads is ferrite. Ferrite is a ferrimagnetic material with a cubic lattice structure. Ferrite materials are iron-magnesium or iron-nickel alloys; their manufacturing process and mechanical properties are similar to those of ceramics, and their color is gray-black. One type of magnetic core frequently used in electromagnetic interference (EMI) filters is ferrite material, and many manufacturers offer ferrite materials specifically for EMI suppression. This material is characterized by very high losses at high frequencies and high permeability, which minimizes the capacitance generated between inductor coil windings under high-frequency, high-impedance conditions. For ferrites used in EMI suppression, the most important performance parameters are permeability μ and saturation flux density Bs. Permeability μ can be expressed as a complex number, where the real part constitutes inductance and the imaginary part represents loss, which increases with frequency. Therefore, its equivalent circuit is a series circuit composed of inductance L and resistance R, where both L and R are functions of frequency. When a wire passes through such a ferrite core, the resulting inductive impedance formally increases with rising frequency, but the mechanism differs completely at different frequencies. In the low-frequency range, impedance consists of inductive reactance. At low frequencies, R is small, the core permeability is high, and thus the inductance is large; L plays the major role, and EMI is suppressed by reflection. At this stage, core loss is small, and the entire component acts as an inductor with low loss and high Q characteristics. Such inductors are prone to resonance, so in the low-frequency range, interference may sometimes increase after using ferrite beads. In the high-frequency range, impedance consists of the resistive component. As frequency rises, core permeability decreases, leading to reduced inductance and reduced inductive reactance. However, core loss increases, the resistive component increases, and total impedance increases. When high-frequency signals pass through the ferrite, EMI is absorbed and dissipated as heat. Ferrite suppression components are widely used on printed circuit boards, power lines, and data lines. For example, adding ferrite suppression components at the power line entry point of a printed board can filter out high-frequency interference. Ferrite rings or beads are specifically used to suppress high-frequency interference and spike interference on signal and power lines, and they also have the ability to absorb electrostatic discharge pulse interference. The values of these two components are proportional to the length of the bead, and the bead length has a significant effect on suppression effectiveness; the longer the bead, the better the suppression. Inductors can be used for power supply filtering. The circuit symbol for a ferrite bead is that of an inductor, but the model number indicates that a ferrite bead is used. In terms of circuit function, ferrite beads and inductors operate on the same principle, differing only in their frequency characteristics. Ferrite beads are composed of oxide magnets. Ferrite beads offer significant impedance only to high-frequency signals; at low frequencies, their resistance is much lower than that of inductors. Ferrite beads are a rapidly developing type of anti-interference component that is inexpensive, easy to use, and highly effective at filtering high-frequency noise.

micro technologies electrical component characteristics

(1) Volt-ampere characteristics: When a forward voltage is applied to a diode, the current is extremely small when the voltage value is low. When the voltage exceeds a certain value, the current begins to increase exponentially; this is typically called the diode's turn-on voltage, and the diode is in a fully conductive state. This voltage is typically called the diode's conduction voltage. For germanium diodes, when a reverse voltage is applied to the diode, the current is extremely small when the voltage value is low; this current value is the reverse saturation current. When the reverse voltage exceeds a certain value, the current increases sharply, known as reverse breakdown, and this voltage is called the diode's reverse breakdown voltage. Breakdown voltage values vary significantly among different diode models, ranging from tens of volts to thousands of volts. (2) Forward characteristics: When a forward voltage is applied, in the initial part of the forward characteristic, the forward voltage is too small to overcome the blocking effect of the electric field within the PN junction, and the forward current is nearly zero. This region is called the dead zone. The forward voltage that cannot cause the diode to conduct is called the dead-zone voltage. When the forward voltage exceeds the dead-zone voltage, the electric field within the PN junction is overcome, the diode conducts in the forward direction, and the current rises rapidly with increasing voltage. Within the normal operating current range, the terminal voltage of the diode during conduction remains almost constant; this voltage is called the diode's forward voltage. When the forward voltage across the diode exceeds a certain value, the internal electric field is quickly weakened, the characteristic current grows rapidly, and the diode conducts in the forward direction; this is called the threshold voltage or knee voltage. (3) Reverse characteristics: When the applied reverse voltage does not exceed a certain range, the current flowing through the diode is a reverse current formed by the drift motion of minority carriers. Since the reverse current is very small, the diode is in a cutoff state. This reverse current is also called reverse saturation current or leakage current, and the diode's reverse saturation current is greatly affected by temperature. Generally, the reverse current of silicon tubes is much smaller than that of germanium tubes; the reverse saturation current of low-power silicon tubes is in the order of nA, while that of low-power germanium tubes is in the order of μA. As temperature rises, semiconductors are thermally excited, the number of minority carriers increases, and the reverse saturation current also increases. (4) Breakdown characteristics: When the applied reverse voltage exceeds a certain value, the reverse current suddenly increases; this phenomenon is called electrical breakdown. The critical voltage causing electrical breakdown is called the diode's reverse breakdown voltage. During electrical breakdown, the diode loses its unidirectional conductivity. If the diode does not overheat due to electrical breakdown, its unidirectional conductivity is not necessarily permanently destroyed; after removing the applied voltage, its performance can recover; otherwise, the diode is damaged. Therefore, excessively high reverse voltages should be avoided during use. Reverse breakdown is divided into Zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown based on the mechanism. In cases of high doping concentration, because the barrier region width is very small, a large reverse voltage destroys the covalent bond structure within the barrier region, freeing valence electrons from covalent bonds and generating electron-hole pairs, causing the current to increase sharply; this breakdown is called Zener breakdown. If the doping concentration is lower and the barrier region width is wider, Zener breakdown is less likely to occur. Another type of breakdown is avalanche breakdown. When the reverse voltage increases to a large value, the applied electric field accelerates electron drift speed, causing collisions with valence electrons in covalent bonds, knocking valence electrons out of covalent bonds and generating new electron-hole pairs. The newly generated electron-hole pairs are accelerated by the electric field and knock out other valence electrons, causing an avalanche-like increase in carriers and a sharp increase in current; this breakdown is called avalanche breakdown. Regardless of the type of breakdown, if the current is not limited, it may cause permanent damage to the PN junction. (5) Reverse current: Reverse current refers to the current flowing through the diode when it is subjected to ambient temperature and the maximum reverse voltage. The smaller the reverse current, the better the diode's unidirectional conductivity performance. It is worth noting that reverse current is closely related to temperature; the reverse current doubles. Therefore, silicon diodes have better stability at high temperatures than germanium diodes. (6) Dynamic resistance: The ratio of the change in voltage to the corresponding change in current near the static operating point on the diode characteristic curve. (7) Voltage temperature coefficient: The voltage temperature coefficient refers to the relative change in stable voltage for every one-degree Celsius increase in temperature. (8) Maximum operating frequency: The maximum operating frequency is the upper frequency limit for diode operation. Since the diode, like the PN junction, has a junction capacitance composed of barrier capacitance, the value of the maximum operating frequency mainly depends on the size of the PN junction capacitance. If this value is exceeded, unidirectional conductivity will be affected. (9) Maximum rectified current: Maximum rectified current refers to the maximum allowable average forward current when the diode operates continuously over a long period. Its value is related to the PN junction area and external heat dissipation conditions. Because current passing through the tube causes the core to heat up and the temperature to rise, exceeding the permissible limit will cause the core to overheat and become damaged. Therefore, under specified heat dissipation conditions, the diode must not exceed its maximum rectified current value during use.(10) Maximum reverse working voltage: When the reverse voltage applied across the diode reaches a certain high value, the tube will break down and lose its unidirectional conductivity. To ensure safe operation, a maximum reverse working voltage value is specified.

micro technologies electrical component performance

The performance of fiber optic connectors primarily involves optical performance, but interchangeability, repeatability, tensile strength, temperature resistance, and mating cycles must also be considered. 1. Optical performance: The main requirements for the optical performance of fiber optic connectors are insertion loss and return loss, which are the two most basic parameters. Insertion loss, or connection loss, refers to the loss of effective optical power in the link caused by the introduction of the connector. Lower insertion loss is better; generally, it is required to be no greater than 0.5dB. Return loss refers to the connector's ability to suppress the reflection of optical power in the link; its typical value should be no less than 25dB. For connectors in practical applications, the ferrule surface undergoes specialized polishing treatment, which can achieve higher return loss, generally no less than 45dB. 2. Interchangeability and repeatability: Fiber optic connectors are universal passive components. Connectors of the same type can generally be combined arbitrarily and reused multiple times, with the additional loss introduced thereby generally being less than 0.2dB. (3) Tensile strength: For assembled fiber optic connectors, the tensile strength is generally required to be no less than 90N. (4) Temperature: Generally, fiber optic connectors must operate normally within a temperature range of -40oC to +70oC. (5) Mating cycles: Most fiber optic connectors in use can withstand more than l010 mating cycles.

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