murr elektronik electrical components, German murr elektronik models, murr elektronik prices

murr elektronik electrical components include resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, transistors, field-effect transistors, thyristors, transformers, relays, sensors, etc.; electronic devices include analog circuits (operational amplifiers, comparators, signal conditioners), logic circuits (flip-flops, counters, decoders, registers, transceivers, NOT gates, AND gates, OR gates, NAND gates, NOR gates, XOR gates), microcontrollers, memory, digital potentiometers, signal conversion circuits (A/D converters, D/A converters, voltage-to-frequency converters), communication circuits (various interface circuits), monitoring and reset circuits (power supply monitoring, program monitoring), etc., too numerous to mention.

murr elektronik electrical component structure

A bipolar transistor consists of three differently doped semiconductor regions: the emitter region, the base region, and the collector region. In an NPN type transistor, these regions are N-type, P-type, and N-type semiconductors, respectively, while in a PNP type transistor, they are P-type, N-type, and P-type semiconductors, respectively. Each semiconductor region has a terminal lead, typically denoted by the letters E, B, and C for the emitter, base, and collector, respectively. The base is physically located between the emitter and the collector; it is made of lightly doped, high-resistivity material. The collector surrounds the base region. Since the collector junction is reverse-biased, it is difficult for electrons to be injected from here into the base region, resulting in a common-base current gain of approximately 12, while the common-emitter current gain achieves a larger value. From the cross-sectional diagram of this typical NPN-type bipolar transistor on the right, it can be seen that the area of the collector junction is larger than that of the emitter junction. In addition, the emitter has a relatively high doping concentration. Under normal circumstances, the various regions of a bipolar transistor are not symmetric in physical properties or geometric dimensions. Assuming the transistor connected in the circuit is in the forward active region, swapping the connections of the collector and emitter in the circuit will cause the transistor to leave the forward active region and enter the reverse active region. The internal structure of the transistor determines that it is suitable for operation in the forward active region; therefore, the common-base current gain and common-emitter current gain in the reverse active region are much smaller than when the transistor is in the forward active region. This functional asymmetry is fundamentally due to the different doping levels of the emitter and the collector. Therefore, in an NPN-type transistor, although both the collector and the emitter are N-type doped, their electrical properties and functions are completely non-interchangeable. The emitter region has the highest doping concentration, followed by the collector region, and the base region has the lowest doping concentration. In addition, the physical dimensions of the three regions differ; the base region is very thin, and the collector area is larger than the emitter area. Due to this material structure of the bipolar transistor, a reverse bias can be provided to the collector junction, provided that this reverse bias is not excessive enough to damage the transistor. The purpose of heavy doping of the emitter is to increase the efficiency of electron injection from the emitter into the base region, thereby achieving the highest possible current gain. In the common-emitter configuration of a bipolar transistor, small changes in the voltage applied across the base and emitter terminals cause significant changes in the current between the emitter and the collector. Utilizing this property, input current or voltage can be amplified. By treating the base of the bipolar transistor as the input terminal and the collector as the output terminal, this two-port network can be analyzed using Thévenin's theorem. Based on equivalent principles, the bipolar transistor can be regarded as a voltage-controlled current source or as a current-controlled voltage source. Furthermore, looking into the left side of the two-port network, the input impedance at the base is reduced to the base resistance, thus lowering the loading requirement on the preceding stage circuit.

murr elektronik electrical component parameters

The main characteristic parameters of quartz crystal resonators include nominal frequency, adjustment tolerance, temperature tolerance, equivalent resistance, drive level, load capacitance, shunt capacitance, aging rate, and temperature range. (1) Nominal frequency is the specified resonant center frequency of the resonator under prescribed conditions. (2) Adjustment tolerance is the maximum deviation of the operating frequency from the nominal frequency at the reference temperature under prescribed conditions. (3) Temperature tolerance is the allowable deviation from the operating frequency at the reference temperature over the entire operating temperature range under prescribed conditions. (4) Reference temperature is the specified ambient temperature when measuring the parameters of a quartz crystal resonator. For oven-controlled quartz crystal resonators, it is generally the midpoint of the operating temperature range; (5) Load resonance resistance is the resistance value at the load resonance frequency when the quartz crystal resonator is connected in series with a specified external capacitance. (6) Drive level refers to the effective power consumed by the quartz crystal resonator during operation; it is a measure of the excitation state applied to the quartz crystal element. In actual use, the drive level can be adjusted; strong excitation facilitates oscillation startup, while weak excitation leads to poor frequency stability or even failure to oscillate. (7) Load capacitance refers to the effective external capacitance that, together with the quartz crystal resonator, determines the load resonance frequency. Load capacitance can be appropriately adjusted according to specific conditions; through adjustment, the operating frequency of the resonator can generally be tuned to the nominal value. (8) Shunt capacitance refers to the static capacitance between the two pins of the quartz crystal resonator. (9) Aging rate refers to the error generated by quartz crystal aging over time. (10) Temperature range refers to the allowable variation range of the ambient temperature during operation.

murr elektronik electrical component principles

When the voltage applied to a varistor is below its threshold, the current flowing through it is extremely small, equivalent to a resistor with infinite resistance. That is, when the voltage applied across it is below its threshold, it acts like an open switch. When the voltage applied to the varistor exceeds its threshold, the current flowing through it surges, equivalent to a resistor with infinitesimal resistance. That is, when the voltage applied across it is above its threshold, it acts like a closed switch. Protection principle of surge absorbers: In the standby state, the varistor has very high impedance (several megaohms) relative to the protected electronic components and does not affect the characteristics of the original design circuit. However, when an instantaneous surge voltage appears (exceeding the breakdown voltage of the surge absorber), the impedance of the surge absorber drops low (only a few ohms), causing a short circuit in the line, thereby protecting electronic products or more expensive components.

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