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NBB electrical components are devices that convert optical signals into electrical signals. Their operating principle is based on the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect refers to the phenomenon where electrons in a material absorb photon energy when light strikes certain substances, resulting in corresponding electrical effects. Based on different photoelectric phenomena, the photoelectric effect is classified into three types: external photoelectric effect, internal photoelectric effect, and photovoltaic effect. Photoelectric devices include phototubes, photomultiplier tubes, photoresistors, photodiodes, phototransistors, and photocells. The performance and characteristic curves of photoelectric devices are analyzed.

NBB electrical component principles

A crystal diode consists of a p-n junction formed by p-type semiconductor and n-type semiconductor. A space charge layer forms on both sides of the interface, establishing a built-in electric field. When no external voltage is applied, the diffusion current caused by the carrier concentration difference across the p-n junction equals the drift current caused by the built-in electric field, resulting in an electrical equilibrium state. When a forward voltage bias is applied externally, the mutual cancellation between the external electric field and the built-in electric field increases the carrier diffusion current, causing a forward current. When a reverse voltage bias is applied externally, the external electric field and the built-in electric field are further strengthened, forming a reverse saturation current within a certain reverse voltage range that is independent of the reverse bias voltage value. When the applied reverse voltage reaches a certain level, the electric field strength in the space charge layer of the p-n junction reaches a critical value, triggering a carrier multiplication process that generates a large number of electron-hole pairs, resulting in a significant reverse breakdown current, known as the diode breakdown phenomenon.

NBB electrical component characteristics

The static characteristics of a sensor refer to the relationship between the output and input quantities for static input signals. Since the input and output quantities are independent of time in this case, their relationship, i.e., the static characteristics of the sensor, can be described by an algebraic equation without time variables, or by a characteristic curve plotted with the input quantity as the abscissa and the corresponding output quantity as the ordinate. The main parameters characterizing the static characteristics of a sensor include: linearity, sensitivity, hysteresis, repeatability, and drift. (1) Linearity: Refers to the degree to which the actual relationship curve between the sensor output and input deviates from the fitted straight line. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum deviation between the actual characteristic curve and the fitted straight line over the full scale range to the full-scale output value. (2) Sensitivity: Sensitivity is an important indicator of the static characteristics of a sensor. It is defined as the ratio of the increment in the output quantity to the corresponding increment in the input quantity that causes this increment. S is used to denote sensitivity. (3) Hysteresis: Hysteresis is the phenomenon where the input-output characteristic curves do not coincide when the input quantity changes from small to large (forward stroke) and from large to small (reverse stroke). For the same magnitude of input signal, the output signals for the forward and reverse strokes are not equal; this difference is called the hysteresis difference. (4) Repeatability: Repeatability refers to the degree of inconsistency in the characteristic curves obtained when the sensor input changes continuously multiple times over the full scale in the same direction. (5) Drift: Sensor drift refers to the phenomenon where the sensor output changes over time while the input remains constant. There are two causes of drift: one is the sensor's own structural parameters; the other is the surrounding environment (such as temperature, humidity, etc.). (6) Resolution: When the sensor input slowly increases from a non-zero value, an observable change in output occurs after exceeding a certain increment; this input increment is called the sensor's resolution, i.e., the minimum input increment. (7) Threshold: When the sensor input slowly increases from zero, an observable change in output occurs after reaching a certain value; this input value is called the sensor's threshold voltage.

NBB electrical component principles

Crystal transistors are divided into two types based on material: germanium transistors and silicon transistors. Each type has two structural forms: NPN and PNP. However, the most commonly used transistors are silicon NPN and germanium PNP transistors. (Here, N stands for negative; N-type semiconductor is formed by adding phosphorus to high-purity silicon to replace some silicon atoms, generating free electrons for conduction under voltage stimulation. P stands for positive, meaning boron is added to replace silicon, creating a large number of holes to facilitate conduction.) Apart from the different power supply polarities, their operating principles are identical. The following introduces only the current amplification principle of NPN silicon transistors. An NPN transistor consists of 12 pieces of N-type semiconductor sandwiching a piece of P-type semiconductor. The PN junction formed between the emitter region and the base region is called the emitter junction, and the PN junction formed between the collector region and the base region is called the collector junction. The three leads are called the emitter e, base b, and collector c. When the potential at point b is a few tenths of a volt higher than the potential at point e, the emitter junction is in a forward-biased state. When the potential at point C is a few volts higher than the potential at point b, the collector junction is in a reverse-biased state, and the collector power supply Ec must be higher than the base power supply Eb. During transistor manufacturing, the majority carrier concentration in the emitter region is intentionally made higher than that in the base region, the base region is made very thin, and the impurity content is strictly controlled. Thus, once the power is connected, due to the forward bias of the emitter junction, the majority carriers (electrons) in the emitter region and the majority carriers (holes) in the base region easily diffuse across the emitter junction toward each other. However, since the former concentration is much higher than the latter, the current through the emitter junction is basically an electron flow, referred to as the emitter electron flow.

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